Peoples of America

For Maya characteristic distinction between the dual halves and four phratries, reflected in the structure of power, villages, worship, and ritual.

At the end of VIII-IX centuries States are killed by invasions Mayan tribes of western and domestic crises. City of Chiapas, Petйn, Southern Yucatan and Belize is abandoned forever. In the X century Yucatan win came from Tabasco, Campeche and southern Toltecs and allied tribes mayyayazychnye Itza and tutul Shiv, Highlands Guatemala - Quiche branch of the tribes. Ancient Mayan culture continues to evolve in the states of Yucatan and Guatemala to the mountain, feeling a strong influence central Mexican culture, the conductor of which was the Toltecs. At the end of the XIV century formed the large states Quiche (the capital of Kumarkaah) and Chontal (the capital - and Potonchan Itsamkanak). In the early to mid-XVI century Spanish conquered the Maya state. The last independent state Itza (Lake Peten Itza in Guatemala North) won in 1697.
Modern Maya in rural areas maintain their traditional culture, typical of the Indians of Mesoamerica (sm. Indeytsy). The main traditional occupation is manual shifting cultivation. Retained the primitive agricultural implements (pointed stick, which make holes for seeds, the ax-machete for chopping trees). On irrigated fields near the cities covered plow. Development of traditional beekeeping (especially in the Yucatan), breeding poultry (turkeys, after the Spanish conquest - chickens), hunting (in remote villages remains hunting birds and monkeys with a brass tube, the collective Driven hunt for deer and peccary), gathering (wild honey, nuts, fruits, shellfish), and fishing. Also bred cows, pigs, horses, goats, mules, donkeys, in the mountains - sheep. Traditional crafts: pottery, embroidery, weaving, carpentry, wood carving in the mountains - patterned weaving on vertical hand looms, the production of jewelry, musical instruments, boats, tile, adobe are employed on coffee plantations, employed in the salt mines, the mining and burning of limestone, fishing and forestry industries (resin-collecting chicle, harvesting valuable timber) in the service sector and in industry. Women are hired as a maid in the city.

Traditional clothing is worn on holidays: male and female patterned belts, coats, Serap, uipili, women's skirts Zapashnye. In Yucatan and Chiapas in light clothing with red embroidery, in the mountainous Guatemala is with solid color woven patterns.

The main food is maize with vegetables, pepper, cocoa, honey. Meat is mostly festive and ritual food (meat eating pet dogs). Do not drink milk.

The social organization is characterized by religious and civic hierarchy, the system of ritual brotherhoods (kofrady) kompadrasgo. In isolated areas remain large and extended patrilineal family patrilinidzhi, community endogamy, polygyny occur, temporary matrilocal marriage settlement krosskuzennye marriages working out for the bride. Community population of villages and farms adjacent to the administrative, religious and trade center - the village of Pueblo.

The pre-Christian cults and beliefs are closely intertwined with Catholicism: worship of mountains, caves, wells, sacred trees and a cross in the center of the settlements (in the lowlands - Ceiba, in the mountains - cedar), associated with the cult of ancestors and the gods of rain, land and memorial rites (of sacrifice andpraying in the fields, in caves and wells, rainmaking ceremonies), nagualizm, shamanism, witchcraft, sorcery. In remote areas remain buried under the floor of dwellings, burial, children and elders in the caves. In the rituals are drevnemayyaskim calendar. As a Catholic holiday - theatrical performances, dances and masked in traditional stories and folklore staroispanskogo. Preserve the mythology, songs, legends, tales, dances.

Modern Maya, especially in cities, assimilate Ladino and Creoles.

2. Actually Maya, Mayan Yucatan, yukateki, an ancient name - oh-kekh («deer hunter»), maseualob (from the Nahuatl language maseualli), Indian people, one of the Maya, the indigenous people of the Yucatan Peninsula (in Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo in Mexico, Belize and in the department of Petйn in Guatemala). The number in Mexico is 670 thousand people, Guatemala - 5 thousand people, Belize, together with the Mopan - 25 thousand people. They speak the Mayan language. Distinguished dialect groups of Santa Cruz and ikomche in Quintana Roo, and Itza in Guatemala (the descendants of immigrants from the XII century Chichen Itza). Close to the Mayan Language Mopan of southern Belize and Lacandona. Over 60% also have a command of Spanish. Formally, the Catholics are the persistence of traditional beliefs.

Agricultural tribes of the Maya came to the Yucatan in the early - mid 1st millennium BC, where, apparently, mixed with the native tribes of hunters and gatherers. The flourishing city-states in the Yucatan (Uxmal, Sayil, Labna, Kabah, Etsna, Oshkintok, Tsibilchaltun, Chichen Itza, Coba, Tulum, etc.) began in the VI-VII centuries. In the X century Yucatan was conquered came from the west mayyayazychnymi tribes Itza and tutul Shiv led the Toltecs. They established a state with its capital at Chichen Itza, at the end of XII century fallen as a result of internecine warfare. In the XIII-XV centuries. dominated by Mayapan in Yucatan, which after the fall of 1441 Yucatan fell apart into several independent warring states. In cities of developing science and art, there were hieroglyphic library of books. In 1541-46, after a fierce resistance, the Mayans were conquered by the Spaniards (the capital of Peten Itza Lake Itza fell only in 1697). Statehood and culture destroyed Maya, Maya forcibly Christianized. Subsequently, they repeatedly rebelled. From 1847 to 1915 participated in the «war races» against the Mexican government. Mayan prisoners sent to the sugar plantations of Cuba. After the defeat of the Maya went into the forests of Quintana Roo (where a group of Santa Cruz retained its independence until 1930.). And Belize Currently, the majority of Maya rural Yucatan. Most assimilated in the north of the peninsula.

The main occupation - slash and burn farming manual (maize, beans, pumpkins, yams, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, Chile, melons, etc., in the gardens of the houses - fruits, vegetables, and tobacco). At milpah (corn fields) are working in male-dominated in the gardens - a woman. Raising chickens, turkeys, goats, donkeys, cows. There are sea and river fishing and gathering in the interior remains hunting, including a brass tube, sometimes - the collective hunt. Development of beekeeping in the rainy season is production of resin-chicle. Developed weaving, leather, manufacture of jewelry and combs made of shells and tortoise shell are material culture is typical of the Maya.

Villages comprise 15-30, in Quintana Roo - 4-30 cabins. Housing and single-chamber system, often on a low platform, rectangular, sometimes with rounded ends, with two entrances on the long sides, gabled thatched roof, transforming into a shed.

Women wear a long white skirt and white long peak uipil on holidays - with floral ornaments, silk. In the interior of Quintana Roo are Zapashnye skirts. Distributed shawls, scarves, earrings, rings and necklaces.

Family is bilateral small, rarely large (extended) patrilineal, meets polygyny and custom castings for the bride, patrilinidzhi.

Religion Maya - interweaving of ancient and Christian ideas and rituals. Gods Rain (chaaki), promoters of fields and villages (balls) of forests and wildlife (porridge) are honored, along with Christian saints - patrons of villages and lineages. Saved nagualizm, ancient cosmogonic views, mythology, cults Cenote (natural wells), caves, crosses (Talking Cross in the village of Santo Kah - oracle and the main shrine of Santa Cruz), a sacred tree Ceiba in the center village. Committed annual pilgrimage to the top of the ancient pyramids (in Itsmale, Tulum, etc.). Agrarian rites (ceremony involving a call rain) led by shamans, priests w-men («those who know»), which also prophesy, heal, and wonder, using seeds of narcotic plants (Acacia). In the rituals commonly used alcoholic beverage from the bark of a tree Balch. Often, the cult of pagan gods send men of Catholic saints - women. The cult of the cross and the holy patrons of lineages goes on home altars and small chapels. The major holidays of the year - the day a local patron, the New Year (January or March), when the feasts, dancing procession of masked pantomime and theatrical performances on mythological and historical subjects (dance Deer, Jaguar, Maura Cortes, etc.). On New Year's dance in the Bull, or pigs, is the transfer of power ceremony the new ritual and civil leaders of the community. - № 8.

2. The people of South America

2.1 The Arauca

Country: Chile, Argentina Region of residence: South America

Arauca is Mabuchi (the self - «the people of the earth»), Indian people in Chile and western Argentina. The number is of 800 thousand people. Of which 750 thousand in Chile belong to the American race of the great Mongolian race. They speak the Araucarias (Mabuchi) languages (or dialects of one language), form a distinct group within the Ando-equatorial family. - № 1, р. 13. Languages or dialects cilice, paunches, Peachey-cilice, paunches, Argentine and Araucaria language (dialect) and dialects. Distributed and Spanish. Preserved the traditional beliefs, there are Catholics (mostly urban). There were matrilineal totemic clans (kluge) and tribes (alyareue). In the 16-17 centuries. North Arauca (paunches) was assimilated by the Spanish, the central and southern part of the tribes formed an alliance under the leadership of Supreme Leader (current), consisting of three (from the beginning of the 18th century.-four) associations (vutanmapu - «Big Land»), each of which included several tribes, and headed an elected military leader. The main classes - cattle breeding (sheep, to a lesser extent - horses, cattle, in pre-Hispanic period - Lama), plow agriculture (mainly wheat and potatoes, and corn, vetch, beans), crafts (weaving, leather, silver, to a lesser degree of pottery).

Real Estate is a large oval in terms of a house without windows, with dirt floors and thatched resting on pillars or thatched roof coming down almost to the ground. Traditional clothing - wool: coarse shirt, loose trousers, poncho - for men, wide jacket, a piece of cloth wrapped around his waist, a cloak - for women. Distributed silver jewelry (especially women), ornamented woven belt. Men wore their hair long, tied head scarf, sometimes wearing wide-brimmed hats, women wore braids and tied a woolen head bands. In contemporary culture dominated by Araucania Creole type.

2.2 The Argentines

Country: Argentina Region of residence: South America

The Argentines, the people, the main population of Argentina. The number of Argentines in Argentina 25.75 million people. They also live in Paraguay, Uruguay, Chile, USA, etc. The total number - 26 million people. Most belong to the Caucasoid race, is a Spanish-Indian mentis. They speak the dialect of Spanish, Argentina, which has a sub-dialects. Most believers Argentines - Catholics. During the colonial period after the Spanish conquest of the 16th century. Argentine population consists of different components - the Spaniards, the Indians, to a lesser extent blacks and new, mixed groups. In the process of ethnic consolidation of the most active part Creoles (descendants of the Spanish) and Spanish-Indian half-breeds, to a greater or lesser extent, Europeanized in the emerging ethno hierarchy occupying the space below the Creoles. A special role in shaping the culture and language belonged to the Argentine gaucho herders and pastoralists. The core of the Hispanic ethnic group was formed in the coastal zone.

At the turn of the 60-70s. 19. culminated in the consolidation of the main core of Argentine nation. The main classes - cattle breeding and trade of livestock products. The further development of Argentines had a strong influence large-scale immigration from Europe, mainly Italy and Spain (especially in the late 19th - early 20th cc.), Accompanied by industrial development, urban growth, the rise of agriculture, the development of grain farming, driving the cattle into the background. Dramatically increased the number of population (from 1.9 million in 1869 to 7.9 million. In 1914), significantly changed the ethnic composition of the population (in 1914 about 30% were immigrants from European countries and their descendants).Argentine culture has been enriched with new features borrowed from immigrants. The greatest changes occurred in the coastal provinces of Pampa - the main places of attraction of immigrants. The weakening of immigration in the years to accelerate the process of assimilation of immigrants has led to a stabilization of the ethnic composition of the population of Argentina. With the cessation of immigration before and during the 2nd World War, developing industry of Argentina required the use of labor from the hinterland areas. This is caused by increased influx of rural population to urban areas, mainly in Buenos Aires, Argentine, and migration to the coastal area, which leads to a blurring of cultural differences between different groups in the capital and across the country, to create a standardized European-style culture. On ethnic processes, especially in border areas affected by the heightened with the 1970. immigration from neighboring countries (mainly from Paraguay, Bolivia and Chile).

Local versions of the culture preserved by Argentines living in the rural inland provinces, with a strong Indian tradition. Provided several ethnographic areas (north-west, north-east and South), differing in dialect and culture. In some areas the persistence of traditional Indian crafts. For example, the Province of Tucuman is famous for its carpets and blankets, items of tanned skin. In the north of Argentina developed borrowed from the Indians Mata co production of pottery in the province of Formosa - weaving sombreros, in Pampa - treatment of bone and skin, in the province of Corrientes - small cult of plastic wood, ceramic, bone, and straw. Rich in folklore gaucho. Farmers are building modern houses of brick. Ranch poor are made from a variety of cheap materials (plywood and corrugated tin). In the west and north-west of adobe homes remain with tile roof, detached kitchen and fireplace. In some peripheral areas were also preserved buildings from the poles, branches, covered with dried grass or straw. The elements of the traditional costume preserved by gauchos in the interior provinces: a variety of ponchos, boots of rawhide, and wide-brimmed hats with a shallow crown. -№ 8.

2.3 The Aruaki

Country of residence: Colombia Region of residence: South America

Aruaki, they speak the language of the family aruako macro-Chibcha having dialects (sometimes treated as separate languages): bintukua, kagaba, ihka, Sanh. Distributed and Spanish (particularly among men). Adhere to traditional beliefs, some ihka - Catholics. - № 2, р. 49.

Before the Spanish conquest of the 16th century aruaki under the influence, and probably in the political dependency of the Indians Tyrone, this created one of the highly developed cultures of Colombia. They lived on the lower slopes of the mountains, some groups - on the Caribbean coast. After the destruction of Tyrone during the Spanish conquest aruaki retreated higher into the mountains. More than other peoples of the Andes have retained their traditional culture (especially the Kofi). The basis of the economy - manual farming (corn, bananas, potatoes, beans, Malang, yams, cook, fruit, sweet cassava, for sale - coffee and sugar cane). Each family has land in different altitudinal zones. Bred pigs, poultry, fewer cattle in small numbers, mostly for sale. The villages consist of several tens of round (in Yogi - a diameter of 3-4 meters) or rectangular (in ihka under the influence of Colombians) houses. Most of the year living in temporary shelters in the fields. Kogi wear homespun clothes and ihka Sand - the purchase of the matter. Both men and women dressed in long dresses, shirts, wear their hair long. Do men wear hats Kogi have ihka - hats with small fields. Weaving (the only type of craft developed) involved only men. Neighborhood community consists of small or extended (2nd generation adults) bilateral family life of the community directs priest (my mother). Matrilocal marriage (before the birth of first child), then - neolokalny. Traditional culture and mythology are stored in Kogi and the mean degree in ihka. In the pantheon of the center is the supreme feminine (in Kogi) or male (in ihka) deity and legendary founder of the four priestly dynasties. On the mythological mountain lakes and identified the top. Ceremonies take place in the church, access to which is restricted to men (round building with two entrances, a conical hole in the roof is framed rosette of perches, symbolizing the sun, the temple can be identified with parts of the universe.) In the rituals used by coca plantations which are considered the most valuable asset. There were human sacrifices to the Sun.

On traditional culture, the influence of aruakov white settlers, missionaries and other groups aruakov trying to preserve the traditional way of life, hostile attempts to meet neindeytsev intervene in their affairs, especially in the religious sphere.

2.4 The Bolivians

Country: Bolivia Region of residence: South America

Bolivians - boliviano (self), the people, the main population of Bolivia. The number of 3200 thousand people, among them Bolivia 3,000 people. Living in Argentina (150 thousand), and others say the local version of Spanish. Writing in the Latin alphabet. Prevalent languages ??Aymara, Quechua, Guarani. Believers - Catholics (not less than 95%), there is Protestant (Baptist, Methodist, Seventh Day Adventists).

The core of the Spanish-speaking Bolivian nation consists mainly of Spanish-Indian matzo (Cholo) and is replenished mainly by the assimilation of Indians (kanichana, kayuvava, etc.). Contributed to national consolidation Revolution 1952 (agrarian reform, nationalization of mines, the provision of equality of the Indian population).

Characterized by the construction of cultural and even ethnic history of Bolivians to pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Incas (XV century).

The main traditional occupations - farming plow (rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, coffee, etc., on a plateau Pune - potatoes, barley, corn, etc.), pastoralism (large and small cattle, llamas), Cholo - more all traders, clerks, skilled workers. After the agrarian reform have become more active forms of collective land ownership - communities, agricultural cooperatives. Intensive industry is developing.

In the culture of the Bolivians of European descent line (the so-called colonial house type in which the residential premises are located around 3.2 yards-patio, and out come out blank walls with massive gates) to a large extent been influenced by an Indian (the use of adobe architecture, music and folklore, etc.). - № 1, р. !97.

2.5 The Bororo

Country: Bolivia, Brazil Region of residence: South America

Bororo, orarimugudoge (self - «people stole the fish»), Indian people in Bolivia and Brazil (in the northeast of Mateo Grosse in the two reserves in the Silesian Missions, a small number of cities in the state of Mateo Grosse). The number of Bolivia's two thousand people in Brazil - a thousand people. Bororo language, perhaps distantly related languages ??also. Distributed and Portuguese. Part of the Bororo - Christians (Catholics) maintain and traditional beliefs.

By the time of first contact with Brazilians (beginning of XVIII century) occupied the territory between the headwaters of rivers and Guapore Araguaia, divided by language in the western and eastern. The Western Bororo largely assimilated to the beginning of the XX century, and their remnants in the eastern part joined the group. The northern part of Western Bororo culturally and anthropologically different from the others (more dolihokefalny and highlighted the strong development of the beard for men), they are known as umutina (self - balorie). Assimilated by the Brazilians in 1950-60. Bororo group with the mission strongly akkulturirovana and mixed with shavante. -№ 2, р. 133.

Key lessons - slash and burn farming manual (corn, bitter and sweet cassava, rice, cotton, tobacco, etc.) as well as fishing, hunting and gathering.

Men's traditional dress - a bag from a sheet to cover up the sexual organ, in the ceremonies - a belt of cortex with signs indicating the generic affiliation. Men pierced lower lip, inserting into the hole decoration of feathers. Traditional accommodation - long huts, with the XX century - the rectangular building under a gable roof (borrowed from Creole) in each house - the extended family (in the mission - at home for a pair of families). Marriage settlement is matrilocal. Widespread premarital sexual freedom. matrilineal exogamous totemic clans form a phratry, house of representatives which are located at opposite ends of the village circular layout. In the center of the square is men's house. The funeral, memorial ceremonies and processions with the initiation of boys dressed as ghosts, totems (up to 50 years of XX century were used in this buzzing) for women to see banned.

Since the beginning of the XX century among eastern Bororo Salesian missionaries are working, but in some villages remain key elements of the traditional social organization, the principal rituals and mythology.

2.6 The Langue

Country: Paraguay Region of residence: South America

Langue (Spanish langue - «language» - the characteristic ornamentation of the upper lip in the form of plates, like the language), eenthlit (self - «people»), an Indian nation in Central Paraguay, western Chaco. The number is of 15 thousand people. They speak the language of lengua (lengva or gekoinlaak) of the same mask-Pano Caribbean families may dialect mask. Replaced by Spanish. Distributed is by the language of Guarani. In the past, a number of tribes called lengua Chaco (poppy, etc.).

Before the 30th.year XX century lengua maintain their traditional culture, led a vagabond life, engaged in hunting (mainly in the rhea ostrich), gathering (palm shoots karandai, seeds, wood Algarrobo), catching snakes and lizards, fishing (in shoaled fish ponds were beaten with a spear), seasonal farming (pumpkin, sweet potato, sweet cassava, maize, tobacco). Differed militancy, local band (50-200 people), largely endogamous, consisted of several (usually related) matrilocal households headed by a chief. Tribes (about 10) gathered for ceremonies in obscheplemennyh camps, consisting of a set number of light canopies (mats, reinforced between the poles).
Men and women wore leather (later wool), loincloth, male - a red woolen cap, adorned with glass beads. - № 10.

Characterized by the initiation of girls during which the young men in masks depicting women threatening spirits, shamanism is common. Traditional beliefs have not been studied.

Today's most deprived lengua traditional lands. Men are employed in the Anglican missions or plantations of German Mennonites.

2.7 The Quechua

Country of residence: Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Argentina, Chile. Region of residence: South America

Quechua - kichua, are Indian people in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, north-western Argentina and northern Chile. The number of 14 870 thousand people, including thousands in Peru 7700, Bolivia 2470 thousand, Ecuador 4300 thousand people. They speak Quechua. The dialects of north-central Peru mining are the most different from the rest. Writing is in the Latin alphabet. Believers are the Catholics.

In the second quarter of XV century in the Andes arose a centralized state (empire of the Incas or Tiahuanaco). In the Inca period formed Quechua nation, was created a high culture. After the Spanish conquest in 1532 and the campaign against paganism in the 1570's Catholicism was Quechua, retaining, however, many traditional beliefs. Attempt to restore the empire of the Incas in 1780 was suppressed, but traffic (including military) under the slogan there to this day. Since the 70th mass migration to cities Quechua, mainly in Lima. The main occupation - terraced, irrigated agriculture (potatoes and other tubers, cereals such as millet - quinoa, kaniua in the valleys - corn, barley, wheat). The main tool - chakitaklya - spade with a transverse projection for the feet in the valleys used a primitive plow. In the mountains is very important animal husbandry (lama, alpaca, during the colonial period - the sheep). Before the advent of trucks in the middle of the XX century lama had great significance for transport. Among the common folk crafts of textiles: in the mountains - of wool, in the valleys - from cotton. Developed manufacture of felt hats, weaving hats panama type, product of cane, manufacture of molded pottery, calabash, gold and silver jewelry, wood carving.

The village community, mostly endogamous, controlled elected elder, and his assistant (varayok).Neolokalny marriage. The settlements in the valleys of the cumulus in the mountains - scattered. Raw dwelling, rectangular, with gable roof. Housing is one big room, in other rooms - pantries.

Traditional men's clothing - shorts to the knees, short jacket and a poncho from homespun wool. Headgear - wide-awake with a shallow crown, under which is often worn balaclavas (chulo). Women wear skirts with a few colored trim, and petticoat longer than upper, wool shawl (liklyu) chipped in breast a large silver brooch. Jewelry - metal, stone, bone, shell. Most Quechua go barefoot or wear leather sandals.

Among the traditional rituals of the most important holiday cleaning of irrigation canals. Reverence of the mountain peaks, the earth mother Pachamama, shamanism, sacrifice for field work, building houses, etc. The folklore - a combination of local (eg, stories of the Trickster-fox), and European subjects; millenarian ideology is reflected in the myth of Inkarri («Inca-king»), which has come to life and destroy the European newcomers. Based on the musical traditions of the Quechua and Aymara has developed the world-famous contemporary music Wynn. - № 5.

Conclusion

American culture began to develop even before the U.S. became a country. In its earliest form was influenced by British culture, due to colonial ties with the British, who spread the English language, legal (legal) system and other cultural inheritance. It is also strongly influenced by other European countries from which many immigrants come. This is Ireland, Germany, Poland, Italy.

Some contribution to the development of culture, the U.S. had people originally living in America (tribes), as well as the ancestors of most African-Americans who came from Africa.

Man belongs to a particular culture depends on social class, political orientation, religion, race, ethnicity.

At the same time, there are common symbols of American culture: apple pie, baseball and American flag.

I think I reached my aim, I showed you the diversity of U.S.A culture. and I completed all my assigned tasks. I explore

ь Sources of culture,

ь History of development of culture,

ь Religion of the people of America,

ь Household life of the each people of America,

ь A geographical arrangement of the people of America.

«How many nations, so many cultures.»

Bibliography

1. Gray Richard and Robinson Owen, eds. A Companion to the Literature and Culture of the American South (2004)

2. Harkins Anthony. A Cultural History of an American Icon Oxford University Press. (2004)

3. Hobela E. and Wallace E. «The Comanches: Lords of the South Plains» (1952)

4. Institute of History of Material Culture, RAS. Proceedings, v. 12.

5. Markova Ed. Cultural studies. The history of world culture. (2000)

6. Vasiliev S.A. Ancient cultures of North America. St. Petersburg, (2004)

7. Vestal Stanley «Sitting Bull, Champion of the Comanche» (1957)

8. Url: www.etnology.ru

9. Url: www.usaamerica.info

10. Url: www.wikipedia.org

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