The ego-psychology

Размещено на http://www.allbest.ru/

The ego-psychology

Such as Erich Fromm and Karen Horney, tried to revise the analysis to show the value associated with the process and I traced the psychology of their development. The most prominent of the so-called ego-psychologists was Erik Erikson. As with other postfreydistov for Erickson greatest significance was the self and its adaptive capacity (including in overcoming neurosis, depression, phobias, effects of stress) in connection with the development of the individual and psychological assistance to it (counseling, psychotherapy). However, this does not mean that he neglected his theory of biological or social factors. In fact, Erikson insisted that any psychological phenomenon can be understood in the context of a coherent interaction of biological, behavioral, empirical, and social factors. Other features Erickson's theoretical orientation include the following:

1) an emphasis on changes occurring in the development process throughout the life of man;

2) emphasis on the «normal» or «healthy» rather than pathological;

3) the importance it attaches to achieve the feeling of self-identity, identity;

4) attempts to combine clinical observation study of cultural and historical factors in explaining the

structure of personality and ways of using a psychologist.

Erickson described the «eight ages of man periods» are his most original and important contributions to the theory of personality, which had a major impact on virtually every professional counselor. His attempt to show the influence of culture on personality development was the impetus for all who study human behavior, developing new approaches to the study of the main psychological problems faced by humanity today.

Erikson's theoretical formulations relate solely to the development of I (ego). Although he has always insisted that his ideas are nothing more than further systematic development of the concept of Freud's psychosexual development of the light of new discoveries in the social and biological sciences, Erickson strongly away from classical psychoanalysis in four important points.

First, in his work clearly shows the decisive shift of emphasis from It to I, that Freud himself only partially recognized in recent years their activities. From the perspective of Erikson, rather it is the basis I conduct and human functioning. He regarded as an independent structure I the person, the main focus of which is the social adaptation, parallel development is It and instincts. This view of human nature, called the ego-psychology is radically different from the early psychodynamic thinking that the ego - psychology describes the men as more rational and therefore make informed decisions and solving problems in life consciously. While Freud believed that I am struggling, trying to resolve the conflict between instinctual impulses and moral constraints, Erikson argued that the I - is an autonomous system that interacts with reality by means of perception, thinking, attention and memory. Paying particular attention to the adaptive functions of I, Erikson believed that people interact with the environment in their development process is becoming more and more competent.

Second, Erickson develops a new view on personal relationships with parents and the cultural context in which there is a family. If Freud was interested in the influence of parents on the personality of the child, Erikson emphasizes the historical context in which I formed in the child. It is based on observations of people belonging to different cultures, to show that development is inevitable and I am closely associated with the changing features of social orders and value systems.

Third, the theory of evolution I have covered all the living space of the individual (ie, from infancy to adulthood and old age). Freud, however, to limit the influence of early childhood experiences and did not pay attention to development outside of the genital stage.

And finally, fourth, Freud and Erikson's different views on the nature and resolution of psychosexual conflicts. The aim was to reveal the essence of Freud and the impact on the personality characteristics of unconscious mental life, as well as an explanation of how early injury can lead to psychopathology in adulthood. Erickson, by contrast, saw his task is to draw attention to the human ability to overcome life's challenges psychosocial. His theory focuses on the quality I have, that is, its advantages are disclosed in the different periods of development. Perhaps this latter distinction is crucial to understanding the concept of Erikson about the organization and personal development. Freud's fatalistic warning that people are doomed to extinction on the social, if you will give your instinctive aspirations, opposes the optimistic position that every personal and social crisis is a challenge, leading the individual to personal growth and overcoming life's obstacles. Knowing how people coped with each of the important problems of life, or as inadequate resolution of early problems deprived him of opportunities to deal with further problems, is, according to Erikson, the only clue to his life.

While we are concerned only the main theoretical differences between Freud and Erikson. However, it should be noted that there are issues on which there is agreement between them. For example, both the theorist agree that the stages of personality development are predetermined, and the order of their passage is intact. Erickson also recognizes the biological basis of sex and later motivational and personal dispositions, as well as takes from Freud's model of personality trukturnuyu (It is, I'm super-ego). However, despite the similarities, many psychologists believe that the theoretical grounds for Erickson differ from those in classical psychoanalysis.

Emergence of ego psychology, preceded by a number of related theories concerning, mainly, the influence of various aspects of social and cultural environment on personality development. Like the directions shown by Adler and Erikson, these theories attempt was made ??to find new ways to analyze the relationship between parent and child, studying the processes of motivation and personality in general. The creators of these theories, Freud abandoned the declared recognition of the crucial importance of instinctual sexual motives in human nature. From this group of scientists, we have chosen representatives of the revisionists, most vigorously questioned the principles of classical psychoanalysis: Erich Fromm, and this is Karen Horney.

Epigenetic Principle

Psychology allocates central to development theory created by Ericson I position that people in life goes through a series of universal stages for all mankind. The process of deploying these stages is regulated by epigenetic principle of maturation. Under this Erickson, as a psychologist and psychoanalyst, understands the following:

1) In principle, the person develops a stepwise transition from one stage to another predetermined readiness of the individual to move towards further growth, is conscious of social outlook and range of social interactions;

2) The Company, in principle, be arranged so that the development of social capabilities of the man taken in approval, the company is trying to promote the conservation of this trend, as well as maintain an adequate rate, and the correct sequence of development.»

Erikson believed that personality development occurs throughout life. His analysis of socialization is best represented by means of describing the distinctive features of the eight stages of psychosocial development.

Infancy: basal confidence - mistrust the basal

The first stage corresponds to the psychosocial oral stage of Freud and covers the first year of life. According to Erikson, during this period of forming the cornerstone of a healthy personality is the general feeling of confidence, other scientists call the same characteristics of «certainty.» The infant, having a basal sense of «inner certainty», sees the social world as a safe, stable place, and people as caring and reliable. This sense of certainty only partially confessed during infancy.

According to Erikson, development in the child a sense of trust in others and the world depends on the quality of maternal care received by them.

Thus, a sense of confidence does not depend on the amount of food or the manifestations of parental affection, but rather it is associated with the ability to transfer the mother to her child a sense of recognition, continuity and identity experiences. Erikson also stresses that infants should not just trust the outside world, but also the inner world, they must learn to trust themselves and in particular, should acquire the ability to make their bodies to effectively cope with the biological impulses. This behavior we see when the infant can tolerate the absence of the mother without undue suffering, and anxiety about the «separation» from her.

The question of what is causing the first major psychological crisis, deeply analyzed Erickson. He attributed the crisis to the quality of maternal care for the child - the cause of the crisis is insecurity, inadequacy and rejection of her mother's child. This contributes to the appearance of a psychosocial setting of fear, suspicion and fear for their well-being. This unit is aimed both at the world as a whole and on individuals, it will be seen in its entirety at a later stage of personal development. Erickson also believes that a sense of mistrust can be aggravated when the child ceases to be a mother for the main center of attention, and when she returned to the pursuits that are left on during pregnancy (eg, resumes his interrupted career), or giving birth to the next child. Finally, parents who hold the opposite of the principles and methods of education, or feel insecure in the role of parents, or those whose value system is at variance with the commonly understood in the culture of life style can create an atmosphere of uncertainty for the child, ambiguity, resulting in a a feeling of distrust. According to Erikson, the behavioral consequences of such an unfavorable development are acute depression in infants and paranoia among adults requiring in-depth consultation the therapist and the subsequent treatment. Building trust in myself and to my mother makes it possible to transfer the child frustration, which he will inevitably suffer in the next stages of its development.

Positive psychosocial quality, acquired as a result of the successful resolution of conflict «trust-distrust,» Erikson refers term hope. In other words, the trust passes to the infant's ability to hope that, in turn, an adult can be a foundation of faith in accordance with any official form of religion. Hope this is the first positive quality I support the belief in human worth and reliability of a common cultural space. Erickson emphasizes that when the institution of religion is losing its tangible for the individual value, it becomes irrelevant, obsolete, and perhaps to be replaced by even come other more important sources of faith and confidence in the future (for example, advances in science, art and social life).

Early childhood: autonomy - the shame and doubt

The acquisition of a sense of confidence in the basal paves the way to achieve a certain independence and self-control, avoidance of feelings of shame, doubt, and humiliation. This period corresponds to the anal stage, according to Freud, and continues throughout the second and third years of life. According to Erikson, the child, interacting with parents in the learning process dressing behavior, finds that parental control can be different: on the one hand, it can manifest itself as a form of care, on the other - as a destructive form of curb and restraint. The child also learns to distinguish between the provision of freedom of «let him try,» and, on the contrary, as condoning the destructive form of getting rid of the hassle. This stage is crucial to establishing a relationship between voluntary and stubbornness. A sense of self without losing self-esteem is the ontogenetic source of confidence in the free choice, a feeling of excessive foreign control, and simultaneous loss of self-control can serve as an impetus for continuing propensity for doubt and shame.

Prior to the onset of this stage, children are almost totally dependent on caregivers. However, because they quickly develop the neuromuscular system, speech and social discrimination, they begin to explore their environment and interact with them more independent. In particular, they are proud of their newly discovered locomotor skills and they all want to do it yourself (for example, to wash, dress and present). We have seen them a great desire to explore and manipulate objects, as well as attitude towards his parents: «I myself» and «I - what I can.»

From the perspective of Erickson's psychosocial satisfactory resolution of the crisis at this stage depends primarily on the willingness of parents to gradually allow children freedom to exercise control over their actions. At the same time he stresses that parents should gently, but clearly limit the child's life in those areas which are potentially or actually be dangerous for both the children themselves and for others. Autonomy does not mean that the child receives unlimited freedom. Rather, it means that parents need to keep increasing the child's ability to make choices within certain «degrees of freedom.»

Age game: initiative - Wine

The conflict between initiative and guilt - the last psychosocial conflict in the preschool period, which Erikson called «age play». It corresponds to the phallic stage in Freudian theory, and lasts for four years before the child enters school. At this time, the social world of the child requires it to activity, new challenges and new skills, praise is the reward for success. In addition, children have an additional responsibility for themselves and what makes their world (toys, pets, and perhaps brothers and sisters).

According to psychosocial theory, feelings of guilt in children cause parents not allowing them to operate independently. In addition, as suggested by Erickson, a constant feeling of guilt may subsequently cause disease, including total passivity, impotence, frigidity or, and psychopathic behavior.

Finally, the degree of initiative, acquired by a child at this stage of development, Erikson linked with the economic system of society. He argues that the potential productive capacity of the child labor in the future, its self-sufficiency in the context of the socio-economic system essentially depends on its ability to resolve the crisis described above phases.

School age: industry - inferiority

The fourth period extends from the psychosocial six to 12 years («school age») and corresponds to the latent period of Freud's theories. It is assumed that at the beginning of this period, the child masters the basic cultural skills, learning in school. This period of life characterized by increasing capacities of the child to think logically and self-discipline, as well as the ability to interact with peers in accordance with the prescribed rules (Piaget, 1983). Love child to the parent of the opposite sex and rivalry with the parent of the same sex at that age usually have sublimated and expressed in the inner desire to acquire new skills and success.

According to Erikson, children develop a sense of hard work, when they begin to grasp the technology of their culture, learning in school. The term «hard work» reflects the main theme of this period of development, because children at that time engrossed in what are eager to learn, that from which it is obtained and how it operates. This interest is supported and met the people around you and the school, where they are given basic knowledge about the «technological elements» of the social world, teaching them and by working with them. Self-identity of the child is now expressed as: «I - what I learned.»

The danger at this stage lies in the possibility of the appearance of feelings of inferiority or incompetence. For example, if children have doubts about their abilities or status among their peers, it may discourage them hunt to learn more (during this period gradually acquired attitudes towards teachers and teaching). A sense of inferiority may also develop in the case, if children are finding their sex, race, religion or socio-economic status, and not the level of knowledge and motivation to define their personal value and dignity. As a result, they may lose confidence in their ability to function effectively in the present world.

Youth: I'm self-identity - role confusion

Youth, which accounts for the fifth stage in the scheme of the life cycle of Erickson, considered a very important period in the psychosocial development of man. No longer a child but not yet an adult (from 12-13 to about 19-20 years old in American society), a teenager faced with various social demands and new roles, which is the essence of the problem, which is presented to man in this age period. Erikson's theoretical interest to adolescence and characteristic of his problems led him to analyze this phase more deeply than any other stage of development, J.

The definition of self-identity, this Erickson, one can distinguish three elements. The first is young men and women must constantly perceive themselves as «internally identical to themselves.» In this case, the individual must be established self-image, developed in the past, and joins with the future. Second, significant others, too, must see «identity and integrity» in the individual. This means that the young need to ensure that they have worked out before the inner wholeness will be accepted by other people, meaningful to them. To the extent that they may not realize how their self-concept and its social image, their self-identity of the feeling I can withstand a doubt, shyness and apathy. Third: young people should achieve «increased confidence» that the internal and external integrity of the plans fit together. According to Erikson, «the mind of a teenager in search of inspiring ideals of unity becomes the ideological mind.» Thus, the «blurring of ideals» is a consequence of the fact that the individual can not accept the values ??and ideologies, which are the carriers of parents, church and other sources of authority. Individuals suffering from blurred self-identity, never revises his past ideas about themselves and the world, as well as one comes to the decision, which leads to a broader and perhaps more «suitable» outlook on life. Thus, the crisis of self-identity becomes a psychosocial problem requiring immediate resolution.

According to Erikson, the basis for a happy youth and gain a holistic sense of self-identity I laid in childhood. The best illustration of this is the dishonesty of the major political figures and decision makers in the past decade: the corruption of national leaders turned the truth of one generation to the next myth. So Erickson explains social protest her attempt to build a youth's own value system to find the goals and principles that give meaning and direction of the life of their generation.

Failure to achieve its self-identity of young leads to what Erickson called the crisis of self-identity. The crisis of self-identity, or role-confusion, most often characterized by an inability to choose a career or continue their education. Erickson emphasized that life - is constantly changing. Favorable resolution of problems at one stage of life does not guarantee that they will not appear again in the next stages, or that is not found a new solution to old problems. I am self-identity - a struggle «for life».

In many, and perhaps in all societies, some of the adolescent population are permitted and regulated to some delays in the acceptance of the roles of adults. To denote these intervals between adolescence and adulthood Erikson coined the term psychosocial moratorium. In the United States and other technologically advanced countries, psychosocial moratorium institutionalized in the form of higher education that enables young people to try a number of different social and professional roles, before they decide what they actually need. There are other examples: many young people wander, refer to the various religious systems, or try alternative forms of marriage and family before they find their place in society.

The positive attributes associated with a successful exit from the crisis period of his youth - is loyalty. Erikson uses the term loyalty within the meaning of «adolescent ability to be faithful to his promises, and affection, despite the inevitable contradictions in his system of values.» Faithfulness - the cornerstone of self-identity, it is the ability to accept and adhere to the young morals, ethics and ideology of society. Here we should clarify the meaning of «ideology.» According to Erikson, an ideology - a set of values ??and unconscious assumptions, reflecting the religious, scientific and political thinking, culture, ideology, purpose - «to create an image of the world, convincing enough to support the collective and individual sense of self-identity.» Ideology provides young people with a simplified, but clear answers to basic questions relating to the conflict self-identity: «Who am I?», «Where do I go?», «What do I want to be?» Inspired by the ideology of the young people involved in various activities, which is challenging established traditions of culture - protests, riots and revolutions. In a broader sense, said Erickson, a loss of confidence in the ideological system may result in general confusion and lack of respect for those who regulate the collection of social rules.

Early maturity: intimacy - isolation

The sixth stage of psychosocial denotes the formal beginning of adult life. In general, this period of courtship, early marriage and early family life. It lasts from late adolescence to early adulthood (20 to 25 years). During this time, young people tend to orient themselves for the profession and «device». Erickson, as well as Freud says that only now people are really ready for a close relationship with another person both socially and in terms of sex. Until that time, most of the manifestations of an individual's sexual behavior was motivated by self-identity searching H. In contrast, early achievement of their self-identity and the start of productive work - that marks the period of early manhood - give rise to new interpersonal relationships. At one extreme of this dimension is proximity, but on the opposite - isolation.

Erikson uses the term «intimacy» as a multi-faceted and on the value and breadth of coverage. First of all, he has in mind the proximity of a secret feeling that we feel for spouses, friends, siblings, parents or other relatives. However, he also speaks of the actual proximity, ie the ability to «merge with your self-identity self-identity of another person without the fear that you lose something in itself.» This aspect of intimacy (ie, merge your own self-identity with self-identity of another person) Erikson sees as a necessary condition for a lasting marriage. However, he says, a real sense of intimacy is impossible to test until not yet achieved a stable self-identity. In other words, in order to have a true, intimate relationship with another person, it is necessary that at this time, the individual had a certain understanding of who he is and what is. In contrast, teenage «love» may be nothing more than an attempt to check their own self-identity, using for this purpose, the other person. This is confirmed by the following fact: teenage marriages (ages 16 to 19 years) are not as long (statistics of divorce), as marriages among those in their twenties. Erikson sees in this fact is evidence that many, especially women, to marry in order to gain their own self-identity in another person and because of it. From his point of view, it is impossible to build a healthy intimate relationships, striving for self-identity in this way. Determination of the close relationship given by Erikson, like Freud's definition of a healthy individual, that is able to love and engage in socially useful work. While Erickson does not suggest to extend this formula, yet it would be interesting to understand in the framework of its scheme is capable of a celibate (priest, for example) to a true sense of intimacy. The answer to this question - «yes», as Erikson sees intimacy is more than just sexual intercourse, it can also include empathy and openness between friends or in a broader sense, the ability to commit himself to anyone.

The main danger of this psychosocial stage is excessive preoccupation with each other or to the avoidance of interpersonal relationships. Failure to establish calm and trusting personal relationships leads to a feeling of loneliness, isolation and social vacuum. Immersed in a people can come in quite a formal personal interaction (employer-employee) and to establish surface contacts (health clubs). These people protect themselves from any involvement in the manifestation of this relationship, because high demands and risks associated with the proximity, represent a threat to them. They also tend to occupy a position of alienation and lack of interest in relations with colleagues.

depression stress erikson psychosexual

Размещено на Allbest.ru