The Peculiarities of Advertising Language

In this study discusses the various structural elements of such promotional text - header, body text, and the motto. In addition to these items, you must mention the subtitle insertion and frame, print, logos, and signatures.

The title is sometimes considered the most important part of advertising text (the title attracts the attention of the consumer and the degree of its expressiveness Titles are divided into several types: headlines reporting the useful properties of provocative, informative, interrogative and containing the command.

The main text of advertising message can be narrative, figurative, tricks (the original), it can be written in the form of dialogue or monologue.



6. Features the use of linguistic devices in advertising texts

6.1 Functional-expressive features of advertising texts

Advertisement text must meet the basic objectives of advertising in general. But one should also take into account its functional role in a particular speech situation. Text advertisements performs very specific functions. The ultimate goal of advertising text is the conviction of readers of the benefits of the advertised goods, services, companies. The effect of advertising is based on the proper use of a number of linguistic and psychological phenomena and regularities.

The main purpose of advertising text to attract attention, arouse interest and stimulate sales. Advertisement text must distinguish intelligibility, brightness, conciseness, extravagance, highly professional. The laws of competition demand from the creators of advertising as accurate as possible in the transmission of information, expression, professionalism.

6.2 Stylistic devices in advertisements

Promotional texts, one can observe the different stylistic devices. Of course, a play on words and images, the distortion(èñêàæåíèå) of the spelling and idioms, «incorrect syntax and unusual punctuation are very specific to advertising and often contribute to creating the most significant and successful advertising messages.

Expression of the following text to a large extent is to use a pun, based on the many phrasal verb to pick up: the verb in different combinations to acquire different meanings - «to correct and improve things», «pick up the phone.» This values of the verb are played in the last sentence that promotes a company AT&T (if you want your business to pick up, pick up the phone), which calls on how to use telephone services company with a view to enhancing the success of business and business contacts.

HE`S NOT IN TEXAS

BUT HE`S OILING THE WHEELS IN HOUSTON.

«Doug, it`s Brian. I just got the results of the drilling programme».

«Impressed?»

«Amazed!»

«So were we.» When are you back?»

«Tomorrow. First flight out. Hey, is the old man happy?»

«Ecstatic. Even after six dry holes».

«I knew it was there. But I want to here it from you. It`s pumping how many barrels a day?»

The rest of this conversation is strictly confidential.

With AT&T and your local telecommunications organization the lines of communication to the States are open for everyone.

If you want your business to pick up pick up the phone.

AT&T

In the text advertising the hotel chain Holiday Inn, deliberately distorted spelling of the word weekend:

Don`t have a weakend

Have a

WEEKENDER

Holiday Inn

Weekender Plus

Such linguistic innovation serves a definite purpose - to attract the attention of the audience and give it effect.

Very active in the advertising used slang and colloquialisms(ðàçãîâîðíîå âûðàæåíèå). As noted in the «Language of Advertising Text,» «colloquial constructions are used to create emotionally expressive color, imagery, clarity and validity of the advertising text, which is intended for the general reader, and therefore should be close to him on the structure. Indeed, often advertising texts are written in such a way that their sound was like the sound of spoken conversational speech. For example:

Fresh rousted turkey with all the trimmings - just like mom`s!!!

Pork tenderloin in horseradish sauce with rice, veggies and homemade bread. advertising linguistic device

In the above as an example of advertising text has repeatedly encountered slang and colloquialisms: with all the trimmings - just like mom`s, veggies. In addition, attention is drawn to the use of the triple exclamation mark, that is not very typical for the English writing, such an emotive much more typical of oral speech.

Number of possible deviations from the linguistic norm is unlimited, since any linguistic rule can be broken one way or another. J. Leach in his book «English in advertising» refers to spelling, grammatical, lexical, semantic and contextual deviation from linguistic norms.

6.3 Syntactic and stylistic features of expressiveness copywriter

Any advertising copy submitted in writing or orally, is a text prepared beforehand, so the analysis of advertising texts we are dealing with two forms of implementation of the speech: writing or orally implementation of pre-written text. In studying the expressiveness of advertising texts can not ignore the issue of basic stylistic devices which are used by the authors of texts on the level of syntax and punctuation to create a special stylistic effects.

First of all, attention is drawn to the special parcelling copywriter. Parcellation, of course relates to the field of expressive syntax. The challenge now parcellation of the text and its role in the expressive effects was one of the most relevant in the study of syntactic organization of speech. It should be noted that, unfortunately, among linguists there is no unity of use on the definition of the term «parcelling».

The term «parcelling» (from Fr. «Parceller» - to divide, split into pieces») means the way the division of the text. In the linguistic literature parceling is defined as: discharge one utterance in a number of intonation and isolated segments, separated on the letter points as separate proposals.

Common to all researches recognized parecellation as a way to highlight the most significant semantic parts of speech in a separate proposal in accordance with the intentions of the speaker (writer). It should be noted that the proposals selected by a special parcellation of the text found in advertisements often enough. Parcelling copywriter has a particular context: it can be both verbal and nonverbal. Non-verbal context can be created with the help of colorful pictures or diagrams (in a case of the print ad or a poster) or video-clip (television advertising). In this aspect, special attention should be paid television advertising (in this aspect the advertising deserves special attention), as the video sequence often contains not only the image, but written text and image. For example, in advertising of dairy products video sequence contains a label («motto»): Milk makes kids strong, - audio series contains only a musical accompaniment. Such phrases are made in accordance with the rules of graphic design titles, suggesting the use of expressing, expressive punctuation and so on.

The nominative sentences are widespread in advertising texts. In it`s communicative function of the nominative sentence refers to the sentence object or phenomenon.

As already mentioned, the main task of the advertising text is to draw attention of the audience to each product, goods, object or event through a relatively short message. This task corresponds to the conciseness and expressiveness of the nomination sentence, which causes their frequent use in advertising texts. For example, in advertising jewelry sentences emphasize their exclusivity for those to whom they are intended for themselves ornaments (Exceptional women. Exceptional diamond), marked not only syntactically but also graphically.

«The first time I gave her a diamond ring she could barely speak for a week».

I`ll always remember that face.

The smile bordering on a tear.

Eyes as lively as the diamond

I nervously slipped on her finger.

And now that we have come

so far together, perhaps it`s time to

celebrate that love, again, with a

diamond as exceptional as our love.

Exceptional women.

Exceptional diamond.

An exceptional diamond of two carats, or more, is so rare that fewer than one percent of women will ever own one. If you are considering an important diamond gift for your wife, like this ring featuring a brilliantly cut 2.06-carat center stone, simply call for your guide to a diamond`s quality and value, as well as the namo of your local expert diamond jeweler.

1-800-557-1778.

A diamond is forever.

Especially characteristic advertising texts issued in the form of nominative sentence, which calls the product, company or brand, turning out goods. For example:

1. Cronograph The Pasha.

The Art of Being Unique

2. American Tank Watch

The Art of Being Unique.

This advertisements are composed of two sentences for the nomination, the first of which represents the name of the advertised brand of hours. These promotional text, despite its brevity, are very concise and memorable though the issuance of title of goods in a separate sentence and quite unconventional graphic design. (These advertising messages are presented in the form of title: every full words beginning with capital letters).

Popular among the creators of advertising texts is a stylistic device of parallelism. As a parallel construction can serve not only the nominative sentences, but other sentences incomplete construction, such as:

Across oceans.

Across industries .

Across hallways.

Notes are working

Stylistic effectiveness of reception is to establish a definite rhythmic structure of the text, helping him to a clearer perception.

Enough common stylistic device is the repetition. The repetition of the speech element, attracting the attention of the reader (listener), emphasizes its significance, reinforces the emotional impact of the text. The most typical for the ad text is a kind of replay frame.

Repeating the same words or sentences not only the attracts the attention of the reader (or listener) to repeat an element, but also adds new shades to the its content. Stylistic value of the repeat is to strengthen the semantic significance of the repeated text.

The following advertising of the insurance company insistent repetition of words and design «promiss» and construction to keep (our, their) promises emphasizes the reliability of the company fulfills its promises.

A promise that puppy kisses are the very best kind. For now, anyway.

A promise to teach you that the more love you give, the more love you get.

A promise that in some way I`ll always be behind you.

Nothing bines us one to the other like a promise kept. For more than 140 years, we`ve been helping people to keep their promise by ensuring we have the financing strength to keep ours. That`s why families and business rely on us to ensure their lives, their health and their financial future.

Mass mutual. We help you keep your promises.

The role of parentheses insertion in advertising texts.

In advertising texts often used parentheses. This explanation can be found if we recall the basic definition of parentheses as a part of the text, which introduces parallel and additional information to help apprehend the content of the main body of the text, in this case information about a particular product, subject, company, etc…

Researches who have worked in this field, the term «parentheses» understand insertion in the sentence not connected with grammatical words, phrases, or other sentences.

As you know, parenthetic insertion are modal in nature i.e. invisible to the reader to have an impact. Virtually all parentheses made in the text of a well-defined a modality and through skilful use of parentheses possible to vary the modal coloring text and even change its meaning. Advertising texts intended to persuade. Parentheses are an important element of the text of the register, giving them a certain modality.

Parenthetic insertion provide additional information. Parentheses give the advantage of the text, making it easier and more understandable to the reader.

In advertising texts, sings serving to highlight parenthetic insertion (double commas, dashes, and parentheses) differ in frequency and efficiency of use.

Short parenthetic insertion processed by double commas. This kind of introduction is rare in advertising texts. Double dashes and brackets are drawn more extensive parentheses insertion. Commas allocated variety parenthetic insertion when it comes to the simplest cases, in particular about cliche insertions.

Such insertions are usually in the beginning of the sentence in advertising texts. The next case of double commas is quite atypical, and therefore deserves special attention.

Small wonder brings you big, lifelike sound.

Introducing the Bose Wave radio. For sound big enough to fill any room in your home.

When was last the last time you enjoyed the distinct sound of orchestral strings in your kitchen? Or in the study? The new Bose Wave radio makes it possible anytime.

It`s attractive and loaded with features. But the true beauty of this small wonder is the sound - it`s bigger, richer, and more lifelike than you ever thought a radio could be. Measuring just 4.5 H x 14 W x 8 D, the Wave radio is small enough to fit in any room in your home. And our patented acoustic waveguide speaker technology enables the Wave radio to fill the room with big stereo sound.

The critics approved.

Popular science claimed, «The sound that issues from this little stereo radio is startling», and Business Week hailed it as one of the «Best New Products of 1994». We think you`ll be equally impressed. The Bose Wave radio is designed for both great sound and convenience. There is a credit card-sized remote control, pre-set buttons for your favorite AM/FM stations, dual alarms, and many other features. You can even connected to a CD or cassette player to enjoy any music you like.

Try out the Bose Wave radio in your home.

The Wave radio is available directly from Bose, the most respected name is sound, for just $349. For a free information kit, simply call the toll-free number or send/fux the coupon below. Or to try out the Wave radio in your home for 14 days, satisfaction guaranteed, call:

1-800-845-BOSE, ext. RP338A.

The information enclosed in double dash, has a sufficiently large value, drawing the attention of readers to the basic dignity of the advertised system Ovid Full Text: for the user, of course, is an important fact that this system allows you to find the word ( the title line, etc. ) in the whole text. The dash performs an expressive function, drawing attention to the most significant features of the advertised goods.

Let us turn to the analysis of the next message that promotes a similar system to find information in the whole text.

You`ve received vital

materials that the sales

force needs this second.

But the information im`t

all electronic.

And the team is spread over

a continent.

(So skywriting isn`t an option.)

Then you combine Lotus

Notes with IBM Image plus.

Now putting it into the

system is as good as putting

it all into their hands.

The faster you can get information out into your organization, the faster your people can put it to work.

That`s the reason why Lotus Notes has become such a fundamental pan of business everywhere. It not only makes the most current information available to everyone across the organization, it helps people work faster, work smarter and - most important - work together.

But what about information you receive or produce that doesn`t start out in electronic form? Such as videos, order forms, faxes or correspondence. Or materials specific to your business, like X-rays or photographs.

Well, now Lotus Notes works hand-in-hand with IBM`s scalable Image-Plus. This is the same imaging solution that handles millions of documents every day in some of the world`s busiest financial and insurance companies.

In the text the brackets are used according to the rules: to highlight the less important information. Double dash allocate more meaning full expressive speech.

We can not ignore the fact that through the brackets is also made parentheses representing individual sentences. The information supplied in this way, as a rule, is not a miner but very important.

Registration of certain statements as individual sentences and their allocation through the brackets enhances the expressiveness of the text. In such cases, the use of parentheses is not due to secondary character introduced in these statement, and punctuation rules. Let us analyze the following example:

Financial Restructuring Enabling A Timber Company To Go Public.

(We Planted The Seed For Their Growth.)

A growing timber company needed to restructure in order to go public. They turned to us for financial advice, interim financing and a commitment for the long term finding they needed to grow. We specialized in helping our clients reach new heights.

Bank of America.

The first sentence of advertising messages delivered in the title. Phrase containing the first mention of the advertised Company ( We planted … ), framed as an introductory offer, highlighted by brackets. Thus, the reader`s attention is focused on obtaining more complete information about the advertised organization. Goal promotes the use of personal pronouns in the highlighted sentence, which forces the reader to concentrate on finding the text name of the company. Admission is very efficient, since it facilitates the provision of a very expensive names in the text. It`s clear that in this case can not talk about supporting the role of the information contained in the submittal. On the contrary through its design as parentheses and isolation through brackets authors draw attention to the important advantage of the advertised bank.

Use a double dash and brackets for registration of parentheses of different degrees of importance allows authors to reach a certain hierarchy in their perception. In advertising texts, signs, serving to highlight parentheses insertions (double commas, dashes, and parentheses) differ in frequency and efficiency of use. Commas are allocated different parenthetic insertions when it comes to the simplest cases, in particular cliche insertions. In advertising texts such insertions are infrequently and placed at the beginning of the sentence. Double dash and brackets are drawn more extensive parentheses insertions.

Advertising text in sociolinguistic coverage.

Often the creators of advertisings apply to the use of idioms, quotations, images of famous personalities, such as:

« For I ne`er saw true beauty

Till this night».

William Sharespeare,

Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Scene 5.

Laura Ashley

Shopping online will be available from the 1-st November: www.

Appeal to the literary, cultural and historical traditions is a very «powerful weapon(instrument)» of creators` advertising. At the same time, similar phenomenas are certain difficulties in interpretation and perception of the text. The use of quotations, allusions, distorted idioms, as well as the introduction of foreign language in advertising requires a common baseline of knowledge from the creator of the text and its recipient. The advertising goods have particular significance of these phenomena. Especially such ad. Goods which represented in the international market, since in this case requires adaptation of advertising message, taking into account peculiarities of the language picture of the world audience that the text addressed to. For example, for the adequate perception of the text that promotes a company AT&T, necessary to understand the meaning of the phrase «No woman is an island, unless she wants to be», which is an allusion to a line from a poem by John Donne «Meditation XVII» «No man is an island, entire of itself ». This phrase means that no one can be in complete isolation from others, and its allusive use in the advertising text helps convince potential customers that the company AT&T will help people to become closer to each other.

No woman is an island, unless she wants to be

Want to connect with our new high-speed Internet service powered by AT&T?

Stay in touch. (47 e-mails since breakfast.)

Stay on top of things. (100 shares at 22.)

Stay in love. (Miss you, too.)

With so much on your mind, it helps to have Marriott, Renaissance and

AT&T do a little thinking for you.

Like making all those connections easier and 50 times faster.

All from the comfort of your room.

So, you'll have time to think about the one thing you never consider: you. For more information and reservations visit marriott. com or call your travel agent.

Thinking of you.

Renaissance. Marriott. AT&T.

The image of a famous personality is used in advertising, must be known to the audience which this text is intended and the text must be perceived as an example to follow. The last point is especially important, because it requires not only the study of cultural values and world view of the target audience, but also reflects the fact that the image of the personality and behavior may change - sometimes very quickly. Therefore, many advertisers advised to use the images of collective, as Lenya Golubkov, or cartoons like The Pink Panther.

Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices

Geoffrey Leech called the advertising language loaded language because, as he said, it aims to change the will, opinions, or attitude of its audience (whether in the interests of the audience or not is a separate matter). Advertising differs from other types of loaded language (such as political journalism and religious oratory) in having a very precise material goal. Changing the mental disposition of the audience is only important in so far as it leads to the desired kind of behavior - buying a particular kind of product. So, the goal of any advertising text is to make the target audience buy a product or a service. This goal is reached in four stages:

1). Attracting the listeners` attention;

2). Keeping their interest;

3). Arousing their desire to buy a product or a service;

4). Making the target audience art.

The pragmatic function of advertising texts determines the choice of sound patterns, words, syntactic structures, intonation patterns. Many authors of books on advertising the hyperbolic character of advertising. This characteristic feature of advertising is reflected not only in the choice of words but also in prosody.

The phoneticians believe that the prosody of a great number of advertising texts is very affective, its emotionality is greatly exaggerated speakers in commercials don`t express their real emotions, they imitate positive emotions to grab the listeners attention and create positive attitude to advertised goods, services or companies.

Speaking voice is a unity of semiologically relevant features common to all speakers of a given language. The components of speaking voice which are considered to be linguistically relevant are:

1). Speech melody (pitch movement);

2). Diapason (pitch range);

3). Loudness;

4). Tempo;

5). Pauses;

6). Rhythm;

7). Timbre.

It should be mentioned that timbre and rhythm are temporal components, which are not directly connected to voice production. In this article we are going to describe two most important speech melody and timbre.

Speech Melody: we speak of tone, intonation. There are three important peculiarities of speech melody in TV commercials:

1). A great number of emphatic contours;

2). A sharp contrast of different melodic combinations;

3). The combination of speech melody and music.

In melody contours the most important falling tones.

A peculiar features of advertising prosody is a sharp contrast of emphatic and unemphatic contours. For example: Wards is advertised, I looks at the price tag and though, is pronounced with prosody of parenthetic insertions. The speaker draws the listeners` attention to the most important information. - The goods are on sale and customers can buy them at low prices.

One more peculiarity of speech melody in advertising text is musical rhythm and tune. In this case the speaker pronounce the text is recitative, adjusting speech melody rhythm to the music, e.g.: «The ninety-nine Honda Clearance is here. Don`t you just love it when you win?» Introduction with rising succession of level tones, High-Fall Rise, followed by High Rise.

Timbre (or voice quality) is a specific superasegmental coloring of voice, e.g. breathiness, hushiness, harshness, nasality or spread lips. It creates a certain mood around a product or a service. The mood can be romantic, lyrical, happy, etc. A voice quality can also signal some implied meaning and reflect a social class or an ethnic group belongs to. Some specialists believe that nasality is a typical feature of aristocrats; harshness is typical of working class representatives.

Positive attitude to advertised goods and services is created with the help of such voice qualities as smile (spread lips) and breathiness with lyrical timbre. Such timbre relaxes the audience, creates calm, pleasant mood. This used when cosmetics for women is advertised (shampoos or showed gels). For example: new fresh deodorant, caress before you dress and feel fresh long after gentle deodorant. Fresh shower, fresh feeling. That lasts long.

Very low male voice is popular in advertising. It`s used in advertising cars goods for men because a low male voice symbolized something big, strong, solid and manly. For example: the Toyota Avelon. All you need.

Glottalisation of the voice quality is lowed when speakers glottalise their vowels. Such voice quality is typical of «serious» corporate advertising (it gives the impression of reliability and power). Closer contact between the advertiser and the audience with breathiness: no matter how pure your soup claims to be, it will dry out your smoother more like you.

The advertisers want to prove they take care of their potential customers protect skin.

It can be said in conclusion, that such components of speaking voice as speech melody and timbre (voice quality) play a great role in attracting the attention of the audience and expressing numerous connotations.

Galperin`s Stylistic devices

A stylistic device is a literary model in which semantic and features are blended so that it represents a generalized pattern. Prof. I. R. Galperin calls a stylistic device a generative model when through frequent use a language fact is transformed into a stylistic device. Thus we may say that some expressive means have evolved into stylistic devices which represent a more abstract form or set of forms. A stylistic device combines some general semantic meaning with a certain linguistic form resulting in stylistic effect. It is like an algorithm employed for an expressive purpose. For example, the interplay, interaction, or clash of the dictionary and contextual meaning of words will bring about such stylistic devices as metaphor, metonymy or irony.

The nature of the interaction may be affinity (likeness by nature), proximity (nearness in place, time, order, occurrence, relation) or contrast (opposition).

Respectively there is metaphor based on the principle of affinity, metonymy based on proximity and irony based on opposition.

The evolution of a stylistic device such as metaphor could be seen from four examples that demonstrate this linguistic mechanism (interplay of dictionary and contextual meaning based on the principle of affinity):

1. My new dress is as pink as flower: comparison (ground for comparison - the colour of the flower).

2. Her cheeks were as red as a tulip: simile (ground for simile - colour/beauty/health/freshness)

3. She is a real flower: metaphor (ground for metaphor - frail/fragrant/tender/beautiful/helpless…).

My love is a red, red rose: metaphor (ground for metaphor - passionateIbeautifulIstrong…).

4. Ruby lips, hair of gold, snow-white skin: trite metaphors so frequently employed that they hardly have any stylistic power left because metaphor dies of overuse.

Such metaphors are also called hackneyed or even dead.

A famous literary example of an author`s defiance against immoderate use of trite metaphors is W. Shakespear`s Sonnet 130

My mistress` eyes are nothing like the sun;

Coral is far more red than her lips` red;

If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun;

If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.

I have seen roses damasked, red and white,

But no such roses see I in her cheeks;

And in some perfumes is there more delight

Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks.

I love to hear her speak, yet well L know

That music hath a far more pleasing sound;

I grant I never saw a goddess go;

My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground.

And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare

As any she belied with false compare.

The more unexpected, the less predictable is the ground for comparison the more expressive is the metaphor which in this case got a special name of genuine or authentic metaphor. Associations suggested by the genuine metaphor are varied, not limited to any definite number and stimulated by the individual experience or imagination.

Metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meaning based on the imposition of some inherent property of an object on another object which by nature is deprived of these property. In a metaphor we find a complete replacement (identification) of one object by another: e.g. The news you bring me is a dagger to my heart.

Metaphor are created on the basis of different types of similarity: of shape, of colour, of sound ect. Metaphor can be embodied in all meaningful parts of speech: in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs.

e.g. These thoughts melted away.

Leaves fell sorrowfully.

The grey-eyed warm smiles of the frowning night.

Metaphor have a tendency to fade away if used frequently. As some scientist wittily observed: «The language is a dictionary of faded metaphors». According to the degree of unexpectedness we distinguish genuine metaphors - when we perceive the two meaning simultaneously; trite metaphors - time-worn and well-rubbed in the language - the two fold perception is fell (half-alive) but the originality is lost (e.g. a wall between two people), and dead metaphors (e.g. to plant the seeds).

The definition of stylistic devices with examples.

Prolonged (sustained, developed) metaphor (ðàçâåðíóòàÿ)

Sometimes a metaphor is not confined to one image but involves a number of images:

e.g. A woman is a foreign land.

Although he there settles young

The man will never understand

Its customs, politics and tongue.

A variety of prolonged metaphor is suggested metaphor. The central image is not given, we have only contributory image: e.g. «I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent» - The image of the steed is not named. Such metaphor may be given in riddles.

e.g. Leaves got up in a coil and hissed,

Blindly struck at my knee and missed.

(R. Frost)

The metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. This is its main function. The command of metaphor is the mark of genius. Only fresh living metaphors call forth images. Imagery is the relation between reality and the way the author sees it. Metaphor is not a displacement of words but the natural outcome of thought achieved by comparison. It is always a result of some creative process at the background of the text as a whole. You have the fusion of things that a brought together. The degree of fusion may be different and it depends very much on the syntactical function of metaphor. Genuine metaphor are mostly found in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are mostly used as expressive means in newspaper articles, in oratory. Sources of metaphors are: man and his pursuits, nature, history, mythology.

The metaphor is often defined as a compressed simile. But this definition lacks precision as metaphor aims at identifying the objects while simile aims at finding some point of resemblance by keeping the two objects apart.

Personification «îëèöåòâîðåíèå» is akin to metaphor - a thing or an idea is presented as a human being. There may be complete or partial personification.

e.g. «I bring fresh showers to the thirsting flowers» («The Cloud» by P.B. Shelly)».

Weather permitting, we shall start.

Apostrophe is the weakest form of personification. It is an address an idea or thing, mostly, to phenomena of nature:

e.g. «Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean» (G. Byron)

Personification gives life to the inanimate. In prose it is less common on than in poetry. It may be different in degree (full and partial):

e.g. «Thick cunning played on her face, had no fun there and went somewhere else» (R. Chandler) - a very intricate way of describing a lady.

Epithet

It is stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or sentence. It discloses the individual emotionally coloured attitude of the writer to the object he describes. It is a form of subjective evaluation. Epithet is a pointed description brief and compact, singling out the thing described. Let us ascertain the difference between epithet and attribute:

e.g. a rare and radiant maiden,

a pretty young girl.

Attributes are logical, objective, non-evaluating definitions. In trite epithets there is loss of the subjective element through frequent repetition:

e.g. cut throat competition, squalid misery, abject poverty

Constant or fixed epithets are found:

1) in folk poetry (e.g. bonny lass, merry green wood);

2) in a particular work (e.g. «Botticellian, eyes, lips, face» said of Danny in «Maid in Waiting» by Galsworthy).

Epithet may be classified from different standpoints. We have already classified them according them according to the degree of unexpectedness.

Semantically epithets may be devided into:

associated with the noun following, pointing to a feature which is most essential:

e.g. dark forest, dreary midnight;

unassociated which attribute to the object a feature not inherent in it (metaphoric):

e.g. meteor eyes, voiceless sands;

structurally: according to their compositional structure we distinguish:

simple epithets - (adjectives),

compound - e.g. thou lily-livered boy,

the pumpkin-like moon;

phrase epithets - always placed before the noun they refer to:

e.g. He was look-before-you-leap sort of man;

Jackline Kennedy has a sort of let-the-chips-fall-where-they-may attitude;

reversed - a vault of a schoolroom,

a devil of a job,

a shadow of a smile.

Pun

Pun is a simultaneous use either of two homonyms or two meanings of the same word, including intentionally or unintentionally ambiguous speech. It`s played two different categories of words-homonyns. Thus the title of one of O. Wilde`s plays «The Importance of Being Earnest» has a pun in it, as the name of the hero and the adjective meaning «seriously-minded» are both present in our mind.

Puns are often used in riddles jokes:

e.g. What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver? - One trains the mind the other minds the train.

Language`s play

play of figures, letters grammatical play (visual)

using of proper names, polysemes

Calambour is one of the kind of the language play.

Allusion

It is an indirect reference to historical, biblical, mythological and everyday facts made in one`s utterance. The facts always are assumed to be known to the reader. Therefore no indication of the source referred to is given. Nor has allusion any formal marks.

«The Painted Veil» - The title of the novel by S. Maugham is an allusion to Keats. «Lift not the painted veil of life.»

Allusions may be used in novels, newspapers, everyday talk.

Semantic peculiarities of allusion merit special note: the meaning of the word is a form for the new meaning (interaction of meanings). Allusion calls forth the knowledge stored in the reader`s mind:

e.g. «Victoria was always proud to adopt the Macabre-like attitude that something would turn up» (A. Cristie) (an allusion to Ch. Dickens).

Vladimir Nabokov`s «Ada or Ardor» is highly allusive to say nothing of his prose in general. Here are some instances from «Ada» (which is an allusion to Dante`s «Inferno»): Ardis-Ada`s; Ladore-L`adore; «Mertvago Forever»-«Doctor Zhivago» (by Boris Pasternak); «Love under the Linders»-«Unter den Linden» (by Christa Wolf); Burning Swine-Swirburne, ect.

The main characteristic of the allusion is to compare two reference situations. Two directed associations - the reader should compare allusion with the context, to establish a reference between the two situations of consistency(accordance) or inconsistency(nonaccordance), that is to change the perception of the content of the text. For example: mythological heroes (Prometheus - describing breakthrough in medicine - implant an artificial human organs doubts about such operations, as the man-God`s creation. In 1962 advances in medicine and automotive mechanics seemed to be moving in parallel lines. A new electric shock device could revive an apparently life less patient - the way an emergency jump-start revitalizes a dead car battery. And in cases where the patient`s own heart failed, physicians were now able to replace the faulty valves with artificial ones - made from such substances as plastic. Darcon and the like. The only difference was that spare parts for a car come with a warranty and medical repairs. Were, such physicians imitating and perhaps arrogating the work of God? If so, would they like Prometheus be punished? (car accident). «Revive», revitalize, dead, lifeless.

Ñalambour is one of the kind of language play. The play of words reflects not only humorous actions of play (noun, but connective part of speech). Punctuation, distortion spelling, typographic methods of allocation (italics, font, graphic form, units in the text, capital and small letters), shifting the emphasis, change intonation, drawing make the hindrance(âíîñÿò ïîìåõó).

Visual play. A Russian had three sons. First name Rab, became a lawyer; second Ymra, became a soldier; third, sailor. What were their names? Yvan - reverse reading, Bar, Army, Navy. Rab - lawyer - to be at the bar that`s to be a lawyer, reverse reading Navy - Yvan.

Stylistic inversion

In the English language the structure of the sentence and the meaning very much depend on the order of words. There is not much choice as to word-order.

The English language has developed a tolerably fixed word-order: subject-predicate-object (SPO). The predominance of SPO word order makes conspicuous any change in the structure of the sentence. The most conspicuous places in the sentence are considered to be the first and last: the first - because of full force of stress, the last - because there is a pause after it. We should distinguish between grammatical, emphatic and stylistic inversion.

By grammatical inversion we understand such word order that changes the grammatical meaning of the sentence: makes it interrogative. Grammatical inversion is objective attitude. It is normalized by grammar rules.

Emphatic inversion is a certain word-order which is brought into life by certain normalised conditions. It is also normalised in the language but not so strictly as grammatical inversion. It does not change the grammatical meaning of the sentence:

e.g. Never have I seen such a play.

Only then did I realize how wrong I had been.

Stylistic Inversion is a deviation from the normal word order which does not not change the grammatical meaning of the sentence it only changes its emotive force. It aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the meaning of the utterance. Therefore in case of stylistic inversion a specific intonation pattern always accompanies such structures. Though stylistic inversion is not normalized by grammar rules it usually follows certain patterns:

1) subject - predicate inversion:

e.g. Came frightful days of cold and rain;

2) The predicative stands before the link-verb and the subject:

e.g. Rude am I in my speech;

3) Object and predicate inversion:

e.g. Strange things have I in mind;

4) The adverbial modifier and predicate inversion:

e.g. At your feet I fall.

Up goes unemployment, down tumbles the Labour vote.

The stylistic effect of inversion lies in breaking up the ordinary unemphatic intonation pattern of the sentence. Hence-all kinds of implications sometimes leading up to irony:

e.g. A lot of good you can do me!

Versus: You can do me a lot of good.

The information is different.

Repetition

It is an EM of language used when the speaker is under the stress of emotion: e.g. Stop! I don`t want to hear; I don`t want to hear what you`ve come for. Stylistic Repetition has different functions. It aims at logical emphasis of the key-word of the utterance. Repetition is classified according to compositional design.

1) Simple repetition:

e.g. Alone, alone, all, all alone.

alone in a wide, wide sea.

(S. Coleridge)

2) Anaphora (initial repetition):

e.g. The man behind the war.

The man who had engineered it.

My heart`s in the Highlands,

My heart is not here,

My heart`s in the Highlands

a chasing the dear. (R. Burns)

3) Epiphora (final repetition):

e.g. «I am exactly the man to be placed in a superior position in such a case as that. I am above the rest of mankind, in such a case as that» (Ch. Dickens) (the function of the background).

4) Framing At the end of a syntactical unit the word used at the beginning of it is repeated:

e.g. «No wonder, his father wanted to know what Bossinney meant, no wonder» (J. Galsworthy).

Framing makes the whole utterance more compact and complete; it is more effective in singling out paragraphs.

5) Anadiplosis (linking repetition). The beginning of a syntactical unit repeats the concluding words of the previous syntactical unit:

e.g. «We were talking about how bad we were.

Bad, from the medical point of view»

(Gerome K. Gerome).

The function: to intensify the utterance. Repetition may suggest meditation, sadness, monotony, hopelessness and it imparts rhythm.

Synonymical repetition is another variety. This is the repetitionof the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which add shades of meaning:

e.g. EMs: lord and master, clean and neat, far and away, pure and simple.

«Mr. Pickwick with his foresight and sagacity» (Ñh. Dickens).

He was confined to his own room,

Then he was afraid to leave his prison…

(S. Maugham)

There are two terms frequently used to show the negative attitude of the critic to all kinds of synonymical repetition. There are: tautology and pleonasm.

Tautology (morphological repetition) is a repetition of the same idea in an immediate context. The notion is expressed by different parts of speech belonging to the same word-cluster:

e.g. to live a life, to die the death, fat better,

sick patient (unnecessary use of words).

Pleonasm is the use of more words in a sentence than necessary to express the meaning. It is redundancy of expression, the words swell and become weaker:

e.g. But that`s impossible and cannot be.

Distant repetition:

e.g. «Nobody tells me anything» (J. Galswothy).

James Forsite said throughout the novel.

Parallel construction

It may be viewed as a syntactical type of repetition, the reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences (clauses). Parallel constructions often include some type of lexical repetition and such as convergence produces a strong effect foregrounding at one go logical, rhythmic, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance:

e.g. The seeds ye sow - another reaps,

The robes ye weave - another wears,

The arms ye forge - another bears.

(P.B. Shelley)

Its function is mainly the equality of rank in successive sentences.

Complete Parallel arrangement is called balance. Parallel construction is frequently used in enumeration, climax and antithesis thus consolidating the general effect, achieved by these SDs. It`s widely used in scientific prose and documents.

Antithesis

It is a lexico-syntactical SD. Two parallel sentences expressing opposite ideas are combined in a syntactical whole. Words set one against another acquire contextual meanings which make them antonymical:

e.g. They speak like saints and act like devils.

«Some people have much to live on and little to live for» (O. Wilde).

Here we observe the contextual opposition of postpositions «on» and «for».

The main function of antithesis is to stress the dialectical unity of opposing features.

Classification of language styles

As has been mentioned before there are a great many classifications of language varieties that are called sublanguages, substyles, registers and functional styles that use various criteria for their definition and categorization. The term generally accepted by most Russian scholars is functional styles. It is also used in this course. A few classifications of the functional styles in modern English will be considered in this chapter.

Books by I. R. Galperin on English Stylistics are among most acknowleged sources of stylistic research in this country. Galperin distinguishes five function styles and suggests their subdivided into subdivision into substyles in modern English according to the following scheme:

1. The Belles-Letters Style:

a) poetry;

b) emotive prose;

c) the language of the drama.

2. Publicist Style:

a) oratory and speeches;

b) the essay

c) articles.

3. Newspaper Style:

a) brief news items;

b) headlines;

c) advertisements and announcements;

d) the editorial.

4. Scientific Prose Style.

5. The Style of Official documents:

a) business documents;

b) legal documents;

c) the language of diplomacy;

d) military documents.

Prof. Galperin differs from many other scholars in his views on functional styles because he includes in his classification only the written variety of the language. In his opinion style is the result of creative activity of the writer who consciously and deliberately selects language means that create style. Colloquial speech, according to him, by its very nature will not lend itself to careful selection of linguistic features and there is no stylistic intention expressed on the part of the speaker. At the same time his classification contains such varieties of publicist style as oratory and speeches. What he actually means is probably not so much the spoken variety of the language but spontaneous colloquial speech, a viewpoint which nevertheless seems to give ground for debate. As we pointed out in sections two and three of this chapter individual speech, oral variety included, is always marked by stylistic features that show the speaker`s educational, social and professional background. Moreover we always assume some socially determined role and consciously choose appropriate language means to perform it and achieved the aim of communication.

Scholars` views vary on some other items of this classification. There is no unanimity about the belles-letters style. In fact Galperin`s position is not shared by the majority. This notion comes under criticism because it seems rather artificial especially in reference to modern prose. It is certainly true that many works of fiction may contain emotionally coloured passages of emotive writing that are marked by special image-creating devices, such as figures of speech. These are typically found in the author`s narrative, lyrical digressions, expositions, descriptions of nature or reflections on the characters` emotional or mental state.

At the same time many writers give an account of external events, social life and reproduce their characters` direct speech. Sometimes they quote extracts from legal documents, newspapers items, advertisements, slogans, headlines, e.g. K. Vonnegut, J. Dos Passos, ect. which do not belong to belles-lettres style in its meaning.

Psychology and Advertising

Psychology is also one of the means of the language of advertising. Psychology is a very powerful tool in the “hands” of copywriters. In this chapter we are going to speak about advertising hypnosis, colour psychology and other tricks.



7. Social Psychological Factors Uderlying the Impact of Advertising

Most people are notorious believers in their immunity to advertising. These naive inhabitants of consumerland believe that advertising is childish, dumb, a bunch of lies, and influences only the vast hordes of the less sophisticated. Their own purchases are made purely on the basis of value and desire, with advertising playing only a minor supporting role.

Advertisers know better. Although few people admit to being greatly influenced by ads, surveys and sales figures show that a well-designed advertising campaign has dramatic effects. A logical conclusion is that advertising works below the level of conscious awareness and it works even on those who claim immunity to its message. Ads are designed to have an effect while being laughed at, belittled, and all but ignored.

Psychology in advertising has long been used as an effective means to sell a product or service. Understanding the underlying concepts that affect human psychology can help a company better sell their product or alternatively can help a consumer understand marketing strategies that get them to buy products.

Persuasion is the constant bombardment of media in a subtle but very profuse measure. It significantly impacts our basic intellectual ability causing us to make irrational decisions based on impulse rather than reason inevitably to buy a product or service we don't really need. It can have a positive or adverse effect based on the individual. Some people are in a need to be persuaded to act in a certain way or pushed in a certain direction because they lack the ability to decide. Others have a negative effect and completely reject any form of persuasion and become almost rebellious to the concept of being forced into doing something they may not want. Then there are those that may sway in either direction and are frequently caught up in the trap set by the media with all its powerful influence changing them from dormant to active status.