The Usage of Derived Abstract Nouns in "Oliver Twist" by Charles Dickens

Ðàçìåùåíî íà http://www.allbest.ru/

Faculty of Philology

Department of English Philology

The Usage of Derived Abstract Nouns in “Oliver Twist” by Charles Dickens

Vilnius 2010

Contents

Introduction

I. General characteristics of abstract nouns

1. Abstract nouns referring to actions

1.1 Actions signified by the derivatives of suffixes

1.2 Nouns referring to actions of regular composition from the suffixes -ance, -ation, -ence, -age, -tion, -ing

1.3 Nouns derived from verbs by means of the suffixes -ure, -y

1.4 Actions signified by the derivatives of endings and compounds

2. Abstract nouns referring to qualities

2.1 Qualities signified by the derivatives of suffixes

2.2 Qualities signified by the derivatives of endings

II. The usage of derived abstract nouns in “Oliver Twist” by Charles Dickens

Conclusions

References

Introduction

When a writer wants to make his language to be creative or inventive, he uses the language different from the conventional and everyday language of his day. Using unconventional or original language, he can give his readers unexpected surprise and make a strong impression on their mind. Abstract nouns in ``Oliver Twist``for Charles Dickens are very common and make his writing more sophisticated, also it helps a phrase to say in one word, or to describe a concept.

Statement of the research: The Usage of Derived Abstract Nouns in “Oliver Twist” by Charles Dickens.

Aims of the research: To analyze the theory of derived abstract nouns and its significance in literature, and to supply it with examples gathered from the book `'Oliver Twist'' by Charles Dickens.

Methods of the investigation:

1. Descriptive. To make a description about derived abstract nouns.

2. Transformational. To support theory with the examples selected from the book `'Oliver Twist'' by Charles Dickens.

Structure of the analysis: The research paper consists of three major parts. The first chapter contains a review of theoretical resources, the second presents general characteristics of abstract nouns, the third one supplies the usage of abstract nouns in the book `'Oliver Twist''by Charles Dickens and submits the conclusion.

Abstract: English possess nouns with only one form of number. This group of nouns is one of the most complicated since the same noun may be treated as countable with one meaning and as uncountable with another. Classification of such nouns is not very simple. Sometimes Lithuanian grammars attribute concrete plural nouns (scissors, glasses, etc.) to uncountable nouns. Yet, such nouns actually refer to countable things. They can form the semantic opposition of `one'/ `more than one'. There is only one form for both numbers. Nouns with only one form of number are more complex than that. Next to the forms referring to uncountable things, there is also the possibility of a countable form together with inflection and word composition. Concrete countable nouns may appear next to abstract nouns, e.g. (uncountable) - imprisonment and kalëjimas/ kalëjimai - prison. On the other hand, it is impossible to make the opposite number form of plural nouns like þirklës - scissors, akiniai - glasses, etc. However, true singular or plural nouns may be used with the other number form which then acquires a slightly different or stylistic meaning. There are a lot greater number of countable nouns forming the centre of the category than uncountable nouns. Therefore, every noun possessing only one form of number verges on either the singular or the plural nouns and does not ruin the dichotomy of the category of number. Presumably, what depends upon the semantics is common to all languages. Assuming that the category of number is associated with the countability, uncountable things, phenomena and states are then universal for the people speaking English, Lithuanian or any other languages. Only surface forms are different: some languages have more complicated forms of uncountable nouns, others have simpler means of expression. The so-called plural nouns that refer to concrete countable things may not be universal across languages. For example, a certain object may be denominated by a noun possessing both forms of number in one language, but by a noun possessing only a plural form in another language, e.g. Lith. durys, but Eng. door/ doors. The true uncountable nouns are abstract nouns, nouns referring to materials, liquids, chemical elements, collective nouns and individual names. What all these nouns have in common is the impossibility to count the things that are referred to by them. Yet, the opposition of abstract/ concrete is also possible among them. Abstract nouns are the most complicated among all the uncountable nouns. Therefore, the aim of the paper is to analyse abstract nouns in the book ``Oliver Twist“ by Charles Dickens paying special attention to the potentialities of their plural forms. Nearly 200 abstract nouns of irregular composition have been taken from the first chapters of the book and used for the current analysis. The nouns have been classified according to the most productive suffixes and endings by means of which they are derived from verbs, adjectives and other nouns .

I. General characteristics of abstract nouns

For a start, let us try and answer the question ``What is a noun?``

Words that name people, places and things are called nouns. The following table list shows a variety of nouns.

PEOPLE	boys, cashier, Carol
PLACES	province, New York, lake
THINGS	ANIMALS	cat, bug
	OBJECTS	fork, television, car
	SUBSTANCES	iron, air, gold air gol
	ACTIONS	(a) race, (the) dance, (the) hits
	MEASURES	kilogram, centimetre, day
QUALITIES	happiness, beauty, honesty

Nouns can be found anywhere in a sentence, and most sentences contain several nouns. One way to find nouns is to look for the little words a, an, the. The naming word that comes after them is probably a noun. Sometimes nouns appear without these little words, but you can usually insert them without changing the meaning of the sentence. For instance:

Paul and his children visited the continent of Africa and saw some lions.

Paul is a noun that names a person, children names people, continent names a thing, Africa names a place, lions names an animal.

Distinctive features of the nouns are as follow:

- noun-forming derivational affixes

- the threefold inflectional sibilant suffix

- marking by determiners

- fixed position in the sentence

- substitutable by pronouns.

Nouns are classified according to their meaning. The above graphic illustrations demonstrate this view:



A noun is one of the eight main parts of speech in the English language. A noun is any word that occurs as the main part of the subject of a verb or clause, object of a verb in a sentence or the object of a preposition. Nouns are generally names of things, ideas and concepts. There are many types of nouns. Proper nouns are names of places, people and specific things while common nouns are names given to general class of things. Nouns can be classified as countable and uncountable, depending on whether they can be quantified.

Overall, concrete and abstract nouns are opposite to one another. To summarize, their differences include:

1. Concrete nouns are those that can be perceived by the senses, whereas abstract nouns can't be perceived by such.

2. Concrete nouns are synonymous to tangible objects, while abstract nouns are intangible.

Abstract nouns can be countable or non-countable (mass). They can also be in singular or possessive form. These nouns follow the same grammar rules as other nouns.

Abstract nouns are formed by secondary means withdrawing the actions from their doers and eliminating the modality (Paulauskienë 1994: p75). A noun formed from a verb designates an action or a state without any grammatical features typical of a verb. Such action which has been abstracted is perceived as an item, an independent phenomenon, possessing its own attributes (e.g. greitas vaþiavimas - fast movement, prastas mokymas - poor teaching, etc.) (Paulauskienë 1994: p75).

In the same way qualities that belong to a certain item and are not associated with other items are abstracted; however, only those qualities that are signified by qualitative adjectives can be abstracted (Paulauskienë 1994: p85). A quality can also be withdrawn from an item and then interpreted as an item itself and what is independent in the underlying structure becomes dependent during the process, (e.g. gra- þus vaikas (a beautiful child) > vaiko graþumas, groþis (the beauty of a child) (Paulauskienë 1994: p75). Nouns referring to abstracted actions, states and properties are different from the point of view of number. In fact, all such nouns are usually singular, but the plural form may also be constructed when necessary. For example, eisena (step, walking), raðysena (handwriting), ðukuosena (hairstyle) refer to a certain manner of an action. The plural of such nouns may demonstrate the countability and show the opposition of abstract/ concrete. Of course, underlying words referring to states and properties form the plural less frequently than those referring to actions. Since the difference of lexical meaning may appear when making the plural from the singular both in the centre and the periphery of the category of number, linguists have long been discussing the nature of the category. Some have suggested to treat number as a compositional category (Äóðíîâî 2001; Àðó- òþíîâà 1970). Others have treated number as an intermediary lexical-grammatical category (Áóëûãèíà 1970). Yet, there were linguists who claimed it to be a classifiable category. In their opinion, all the nouns have to be divided into two basic groups according to whether they refer to countable or uncountable things. Only then nouns have to be classified further indicating the cases of a certain opposition between the singular and the plural (Ìèëîñëàâñêèé 1981). In grammar, classification, word composition and inflection are inseparable. First, all the words are divided into big complicated grammatical classes called parts of speech that differ from each other according to the meaning, form and function in the sentence. Inside the inflectional parts of speech there are all sorts of categories. For example, the categories of gender, transitivity, voice, aspect are completely classifiable. Verbal forms are inflectional as well as compositional and classifiable. Thus, a complicated phenomenon cannot be called neither exceptionally lexical, nor classifiable, nor inflectional. Among uncountable nouns one may find classificatory, inflectional and compositional features. These nouns are uncountable only according to the first basic meaning. It seems that only the centre of the category does not cause any problems; however, analysis of the periphery of the category becomes more and more complex. In fact, nouns with only one form of number can also be divided into singular and plural, countable and uncountable.

1. Abstract nouns referring to actions

In principle, nouns referring to actions signify abstract things that are uncountable. In this case, such nouns should only possess the singular form. However, this is not so in Lithuanian. Classification may also be carried out for abstracted nouns referring to actions. Some actions are actually pure abstract nouns with only one possible number form, e.g. dora - honour, gëda - shame, oðimas - sighing, augimas - growth, puvimas - rot etc. However, certain abstract nouns may form the plural referring to iteration and intensity, e.g. skambesys - skambesiai (ring), sopulys - sopuliai (pain), etc. Yet, the case is even more complicated. It is possible to make an abstract uncountable noun and a homonymous countable noun referring to a concrete thing from the same verb, e.g. praðyti (ask) > praðymas (the action of asking) and praðymas (a document); skelbti (announce)> skelbimas (the action of announcement) and skelbimas (notice), etc. Such are two different nouns: abstracts are uncountable and nouns referring to concrete things are variable in terms of number (praðymas/ praðymai, skelbimas/ skelbimai, kalëjimas/ kalëjimai) since they refer to countable things. This is not necessarily so in English: there are different lexical items to name such things. Yet, sometimes it is possible to trace the connection between two lexical items through word structure. For example, imprisonment and prison share the same stem. However, only in Lithuanian are such nouns homonymous. If the underlying verb refers to an action which is independent from the agent's will, then this action may be repeated and counted. Therefore, nouns made from such verbs are countable (ëji- mas - ëjimai (move - moves), dûþis - dûþiai (stroke - stro- kes), smûgis - smûgiai (kick - kicks), etc.)

Derivatives of all suffixes or endings are specific from the point of view of composition of number forms and inflection. It is best to reveal the occurrence of the plural and its relation to the singular by analysing nouns referring to actions according to the most productive types of composition. Theorists of word composition claim that a certain type of composition is characterised by:

1) the compositional meaning;

2) the lexical grammatical nature of the underlying word;

3) the compositional formative (Urbutis 1978: p249).

In fact, the compositional meaning is this base that may be used to estimate the potentialities of the plural forms next to the singular nouns referring to abstracted actions.

1.1 Actions signified by the derivatives of suffixes

Abstract nouns may be composed by means of different suffixes. However, they are of different productivity.

Abstract forms of nouns are very common and an important part of communication. In many cases these types of nouns are derived from an addition of a suffix or alteration in the root word. Child is a concrete noun, for example, but childhood is an intangible state, so it is abstract. Nouns with the following suffixes are often abstract:

· -tion

· -ism

· -ity

· -ment

· -ness

· -age

· -ance/-ence

· -ship

· -ability

1.2 Nouns referring to actions of regular composition from the suffixes -ance, -ation, -ence, -age, -tion, -ing

These are the most productive. It is possible to make as many abstract nouns as there are verbs in English or Lithuanian . Lithuanian grammar does not amply describe the composition of homonymous abstract nouns. It is only indicated that certain derivatives of the suffixes -imas and -ymas tend to become concrete. Of course, this is not the same as parallel composition of an abstract and concrete noun from the same underlying verb. Three cases of meaning concretization are listed in Lithuanian grammar: a) the result of an action (rarely - of an object), e.g. arimas (plough), audimas (texture), gërimas (drink, beverage), iðradimas (invention), skynimas (clearing), etc. b) the place of an action, e.g. iðëjimas (exit), ávaþia- vimas (entrance), kalëjimas (prison), etc. c) a certain document, e.g. liudijimas (certificate), kvietimas (invitation card), etc. It is claimed in the Lithuanian Grammar that concrete derivatives do not interfere with the usage of the true abstract nouns composed by means of the suffix -imas, and, if necessary, they can be easily composed of the same verbs. However, this is not exactly so. The grammar states that abstract nouns become concrete and it then adds that abstract nouns may be also composed from the same verbs. This actually acknowledges parallel composition. However, first abstract nouns are made from verbs through regular composition, and, only if necessary, one can compose concrete number variable nouns referring to countable things, i.e. possessing both the singular and the plural with no change in lexical meaning. The composition of abstract nouns is regular; meanwhile, concrete nouns cannot be made from all verbs. This means that not all abstract nouns have a countable equivalent with a concrete meaning in Lithuanian. For example, oðimas, ðvietimas, buvimas, laukimas, augimas, etc. can never acquire concrete meanings and possess plural forms. Yet, sometimes such nouns may become concrete if used metaphorically, e.g. gyvenimas (home- stead, grange). The suffix -ymas and -imas are actually variants of the same suffix because -ymas is used when there is the suffixal element -y - in the stem of the verbal infinitive, e.g. rað-y-ti (write) - raðymas (writing), prað-y-ti (ask) - praðymas (asking), etc. Next to abstract derivatives of this suffix there also may be countable nouns referring to concrete things, e.g. pûdymas - pûdy- mai (fallow land), grendymas - grendymai (threshing-floor), pasimatymas - pasimatymai (date), etc. The plural of the nouns referring to actions may also imply iteration and intensity. In such a case, the process already indicates word composition and not inflection, e.g. dûrimas - dûrimai, pareiðkimas - pareiðkimai, etc. Many, if not all, equivalents of Lithuanian nouns derived by means of the suffixes -imas and -ymas referring to actions can be derived from verbs by means of the suffix -ing in English, e.g. augimas - growing, gërimas - drinking, græþimas - boring, kentëjimas - suffering, malimas - milling, praðymas - asking, sukimas - turning, veþimas - shipping, etc. Some of them have synonyms derived from verbs by means of other endings, e.g. growing = growth, shipping = shipment, etc. English equivalents of Lithuanian nouns that may also refer to a more concrete concept than action usually are lexically related to the verb from which nouns referring to actions are derived, e.g. arimas - ploughing (action) and plough (ploughed land), gërimas - drinking (action), ið- radimas - inventing (action) and invention (created thing), etc. Yet, this is not a regular process in English. In some cases there are separate lexical items in English to refer to an action and a result of an action which are signified by the same word in Lithuanian, e.g. audimas - weaving and texture, etc.

1.3 Nouns derived from verbs by means of the suffixes -ure, - y

Enormous amount true invariable abstract nouns are found in the 18 century literature. These nouns never make the plural form. They may be both un- countable, e.g. future ( ateitis),memory ( atmintis), etc. and concrete number variable nouns referring to countable things, e.g. stotis/ stotys, uþduotis/ uþduotys, etc. There are also cases when the plural differs from the singular by acquiring the meaning of intensity and iteration. On this understanding, their plural is the result of word composition, e.g. iðgàstis/ iðgàsèiai, iðpaþintis/ iðpaþintys, pyktis/ pykèiai, sukaktis/ sukaktys, etc. Their equivalents in English are mostly singular, too, except buitis - mode of life/ modes of life which is countable, and dobstis - worn things, which takes the plural form and is translated using a descriptive method. Of course, a number of these equivalents can sometimes form the plural in English, e.g. memory/ memories, defence/ defences, death/ deaths, etc. She tried to tell herself no, but throughout the day his smiles and glances, the way he touched her hand, were steadily, stealthily, wearing down her defences. (BNC) I heard there'd been a death in the family. (LDCE) Yet, the meaning referring to an uncountable item is usually given as the first one in English dictionaries. In those cases when there is the possibility of a countable noun in English, the noun acquires a more concrete meaning.

1.4 Actions signified by the derivatives of endings and compounds

There are a lot fewer derivatives of the endings than derivatives of the suffixes in English and Lithuanian. However, the same phenomena from the point of view of number can be observed both for the derivatives of the suffixes and the derivatives of endings. There are not too many endings by means of which abstract nouns can be derived in Lithuaniam language. They are the following: -a, e.g. atgaiva, mûða, etc. -is, e.g. atlyþis, dûkis, skrydis, spjûvis, etc. -as, e.g. juokas, nerimas, etc. -ë, e.g. grësmë,, etc. -ius, e.g. stygius, etc. As it has been shown above, derivatives of the suffixes may produce parallel word building (skelbimas - an action and a document). There are a few cases of parallel word building of the derivatives of endings, too, e.g. dëkoti (thank) > padë-ka (action of thanking) and padëka (a thanks document). Of course, a number of nouns referring to actions can be counted, e.g.

spjûvis - spjûviai, dûþis - dûþiai, etc. Therefore, the opposition between the singular and the plural in these cases reminds of the inflection process. There are also cases of new lexical meaning in the plural, e.g. juokas - juokai, pagalba - pagalbos, etc. Such nouns resemble the inflection; however, they are uncountable. Their plural refers to either something new in comparison to the singular, e.g. juokas (laughter) - juokai (tricks, jokes), paþiûra (opinion) - paþiûros (creed), etc. or repetition of the same action, e.g. mankðta - mankð- tos, etc. A few derivatives of endings have changed from the point of view number over time. Nouns like marriage (santuoka - santuokos) are countable; yet, this depends upon the extralinguistic factors. If marriage is considered one for the life until death in joys and sorrows, then the nouns should be singular. However, life changes and the law allows people to get married and divorced several times in life. Therefore, the uncountable nouns may become countable. Several more equivalents may be treated as either countable or uncountable in English, e.g., ánirðis - rage, áðëlis - fury, kilmë - origin, perstojis - recess, snygis - snowfall, etc. Like in Lithuanian, when these nouns are treated as countable they refer to a more concrete manifestation of a certain action, e.g. I was frightened because I had never seen him in such a rage before. (CALD) Therefore, the plural form of such nouns is not strange. These are the singular nouns that may show neither inflection nor word building. In other words, abstract compounds never form the opposition between the singular and the plural. Their English equivalents with rare exceptions are also singular.

2. Abstract nouns referring to qualities

Nouns referring to qualities can be mostly derived from adjectives either by means of suffixes or endings. They are not as abundant as derivatives of verbs referring to actions. There are only 20 suffixes by means of which derivatives referring to qualities can be made; however, only three of them are really productive (Ulvydas 1965: p306). There are even fewer nouns derived by means of endings.

2.1 Qualities signified by the derivatives of suffixes

These are the most productive suffixes of the derivatives referring to qualities. Abstract nouns can be made from all attributive adjectives that refer to an independent feature unrelated to any external thing or phenomenon (Paulauskienë 1994: p72) e.g. ankðtumas, smagumas,etc. From the point of view of the composition of number forms these nouns are a lot simpler than nouns referring to actions. Only a few of them may possess the plural form next to the singular, e.g. neramumas - neramumai, patogumas - patogumai, etc. In modern Lithuanian derivatives from more complex adjectives or even participles are possible to be made, derivatives from adjectives of more than two syllables: audringumas, akivaizdumas,etc.What can be said about the number of such derivatives is that the underlying word possesses the meaning of definiteness. Therefore, it is incompatible with the plural whose one of the attributes is `indefinite'. Thus, the nouns referring to qualities never form the plural. Almost all English equivalents of Lithuanian nouns derived by means of the suffix -umas are singular.

Only some of them show a different number form. One is treated as a countable noun: baigtumas - finish. Two equivalents of the Lithuanian derivatives in English take the plural ending, e.g. pilnateisiðkumas, visteisiðkumas - full rights. There are nouns which may be both abstract and concrete, e.g. aukðtas (high) > aukðtuma (= aukðtumas/ height) and aukðtuma (a hill); etc. The English equivalents of the Lithuanian nouns derived by means of the suffix -uma often take the ending -ness, e.g. ankðtuma - tightness, apvaluma - roundedness, artuma - nearness, closeness, baltuma - whiteness, riebuma - fatness, statuma - steepness, tankuma, tirðtuma - thick- ness, etc. All nouns in English that end with -ness are singular. Yet, when these nouns refer to some concrete place they are usually translated into English using the descriptive method, e.g. bloguma - bad side, klampuma - marshy place, plynu- ma - plain spot, skaidruma - clear part or place, sliduma - slipper place, ðviesuma - bright part or place, etc. Therefore their way shall be unto them as slippery places in the darkness ... (Bible) They are found in all kinds of damp, dark places. (BNC) The examples prove that such nouns may be used in the plural under certain circumstances in English.

Like in Lithuanian, certain English equivalents may sometimes be treated as countable, thus, acquiring a new shade of meaning, e.g. bedievy- bë - infidelity, gyvybë - life, groþybë - beauty, nelygy- bë - inequality, sunkenybë - difficulty, etc. 14 English equivalents have been found to change their meaning in the plural, e.g. What conclusions can be drawn from the failure of social services to reduce substantially socio-economic inequalities of access, use and outcome? (BNC) He did not want the amusements of the seaside, or the beauties of the countryside. (BNC) The meaning acquired in the plural is usually more concrete than in the usual singular form of number.

Their plural form of foreign origin nouns is impossible. Their English equivalents usually take the ending -ism.(Lithuanian, e.g. absoliutizmas, alkoholizmas, chuliganizmas,) e.g. banditizmas - banditry, biurokratizmas - bureaucracy, de- kadentizmas - decadence, istorizmas - historicity, snobiz- mas - snobbery, universalizmas - universality, etc.

2.2 Qualities signified by the derivatives of endings

A number of abstract nouns referring to qualities are formed by means of endings. However, the potentialities of the plural are minor. For example, the meaning of the noun graþumas (beauty) derived by means of the suffix and the derivative groþis (beauty) created by means of an ending are similar, e.g. Koks tos mergaitës graþumas// groþis. But the plural is only possible with the derivative of the suffix -umas, e.g. Accordingly, all derivatives of the ending -is referring to abstract qualities are only singular, e.g. bjauris, greitis, groþis, etc. Perhaps only one or two such nouns may have both meanings: an abstract and a concrete one. For instance, the derivative plikis refers to baldness and a bald person with the derogatory meaning. Nouns referring to dimensions like aukðtis, gylis, grei- tis, ilgis, plotis, storis may sometimes acquire a more concrete meaning and be used in the plural.

Like in Lithuanian, some English equivalents also show possibilities of the plural form. Of course, this process always affects the meaning. For example, the English equivalents like baisis - fear, blogis - evil, gylis - depth, greitis - speed, ilgis - length, plotis - width, etc. are marked in the English dictionaries as countable or uncountable nouns. The meaning of the countable nouns is always more specific. The only English equivalent which has been found to have the plural ending and to refer to an uncountable concept is ankstis - early hours.

Nouns derived by means of the ending -a are all singular in Lithuanian, e.g. dràsa, gausa, tyla, etc. All their English equivalents are singular, too, e.g. aitra - zest, gusto, branda - maturity, ripeness, dora - honour, kaitra - heat, kantra - patience, stropa - zeal, diligence, assiduity, ðvara - cleanness, tal-pa - capacity, tampra - elasticity, resilience, taura - nobleness, nobility, tyka - calm, vësa - cool, chill, cool-ness, þvarba - raw- ness, etc.

Nouns derived by means of the endings -as and - ë are not common in Lithuanian nouns derived by means of these endings. 10 nouns derived by means of the ending -as, e.g. apstas, godas, narsas, tvankas and 8 nouns derived by means of the ending -ë, e.g. kaltë, vertë have been found in the dictionary. On the other hand, in standard Lithuanian derivatives of the ending -as tend to be replaced by the derivatives of other suffixes or endings, e.g. apstas = apstumas, narsas = narsumas = narsa, tvankas = tvankumas = tvanka, etc. Their English equivalents are again only singular, e.g. godas - greediness, gûdas - the dead of night, klaikas - fright, skurdas - poverty, ðiurpas - horror, ûmas - quickness, etc. What concerns the rare derivatives of the ending -ë, there is one or two that can be found to be used in the plural, e.g. Ir atleisk mums mûsø kaltes, kaip ir mes atleidþiame savo kaltininkams (from ”Tëve mûsø”). On the other hand, doubt- fully it is possible to use a numeral together with this noun. Theoretically it is possible to count, but practically it is not common.

abstract noun dickens suffix

II. The usage of derived abstract nouns in “Oliver Twist” by Charles Dickens

Abstraction is an important part of communication. These nouns name things that can't be seen, heard, tasted, smelled or touched, but allow us to express information by defining them on some level. An important precaution for the writers, however, is that there is the danger of the being misunderstood when using abstract forms in writing. Furthermore it did not happen to Charles Dickens, whose novels are full of abstract nouns which make his writings more lively.To sum up, there are two chief divisions of abstract nouns:

(1) VERBAL NOUNS, expressing state, condition, or action.

(2) ATTRIBUTE NOUNS, expressing attributes or qualities.

Thus,the following examples taken from ``Oliver Twist“ by Charles Dickens demonstrante the first type of abstract nous:

”Among other public buildings in a certain town, which for many reasons it will be prudent to refrain from mentioning, and <…>” (1 pg.)

''<…> but one which custom has rendered necessary to our easy existence;” ( 1pg.)

''There being nobody by, however, but a pauper old woman, who was rendered rather misty by an unwonted allowance of beer;”.( 1pg)

“'You needn't mind sending up to me, if the child cries, nurse,' said the surgeon, putting on his gloves with great deliberation.''(3pg.)

“This was no very great consolation to the child.( 9pg.)

''The fact is, that there was considerable difficulty in inducing Oliver to take upon himself the office of respiration<…>''(9pg.)

'' But now that he was enveloped in the old calico robes which had grown yellow in the same service, he was badged and ticketed, and fell into his place at once--a parish child--<…>(4pg.)

“As Oliver gave this first proof of the free and proper action of his lungs, the patchwork coverlet which was carelessly flung over the iron bedstead,<…>”(2pg.)

“Master Bates saw something so exquisitely ludicrous in this reply, that he burst into another laugh; which laugh, meeting the coffee he was drinking, and carrying it down some wrong channel, very nearly terminated in his premature suffocation.“(49pg.)

“<…> he had sense enough to make a feint of feeling great regret at going away.”(9pg.)

“<…> who received the culprits at and for the consideration of sevenpence-halfpenny per small head per week.”(4pg.)

“<…> and consigned the rising parochial generation to even a shorter allowance than was originally provided for them.”(4pg.)

“'<…>we have never been able to discover who is his father, or what was his mother's settlement, name, or condition.”( 9pg.)

“<…> the balance being decidedly in favour of the latter.”(1pg.)

“Oliver breathed, sneezed <…> by setting up as loud a cry as could reasonably have been expected from a male infant who had not been possessed of that very useful appendage <…>“(2pg.)

“'Lor bless her dear heart, no!' interposed the nurse, hastily depositing in her pocket a green glass bottle, the contents of which she had been tasting in a corner with evident satisfaction.”(3pg.)

“'Oh, you must not talk about dying yet.' “(2pg.)

“<…> who had a great theory about a horse being able to live without eating”<…>(5pg.)

“<…> or the parishioners would rebelliously affix their signatures to a remonstrance.”(6pg.)

“Now, Mr. Bumble was a fat man, and a choleric; so, instead of responding to this open-hearted salutation in a kindred spirit<…>”(6pg.)

“But nature or inheritance had implanted a good sturdy spirit in Oliver's breast, thanks to the spare diet of the establishment; and perhaps to this circumstance may be attributed his having any ninth birthday at all.”(6pg.)

“<…> replied Mrs. Mann with great humility.” (6pg.)

“Mr. Bumble wiped from his forehead the perspiration which his walk had engendered,<…> (7pg.)

“<…> and had scarcely completed the demolition of a second slice of bread<…>”(9pg.)

'''<…> there's no denying that, since the new system of feeding has come in <…>( 12pg.)

“'Stand a little away from him, Beadle,' said the other magistrate: laying aside the paper, and leaning forward with an expression of interest.” ( 19pg.)

“<…> and was shaking her fist at him with a furious countenance.”(9pg.)

“Oliver was precisely in this condition.“( 47 pg.)

“'<…> inquired Bumble, following with this eyes the interesting process of mixing. “ (7pg.)

“Oliver, having had by this time as much of the outer coat of dirt which encrusted his face and hands, removed, as could be scrubbed off in one washing, was led into the room by his benevolent protectress.”(8pg.)

“It was a regular place of public entertainment for the poorer classes; a tavern where there was nothing to pay;”(10pg.)

“With this view, they contracted with the water-works to lay on an unlimited supply of water;” ( 11pg.)

“<…>-except on occasions of great public rejoicing, when he had two ounces and a quarter of bread besides. “(10pg.)

“Oliver Twist and his companions suffered the tortures of slow starvation for three months:<…>”(10pg.)

“The bowls never wanted washing.”(11pg.)

“Horror was depicted on every countenance.”(12pg.)

“As I purpose to show in the sequel whether the white waistcoated gentleman was right or not, I should perhaps mar the interest of this narrative <…>, if I ventured to hint just yet, whether the life of Oliver Twist had this violent termination or no.” ( 13pg.)

<…>and he was allowed to perform his ablutions every morning under the pump <…> in the presence of Mr. Bumble, who prevented his catching cold, <…>(14 pg.)

“And so for from being denied the advantages of religious consolation,<…>”(14pg.)

“The donkey was in a state of profound abstraction: wondering, probably, whether he was destined to be regaled with a cabbage-stalk <…>”(15pg.)

“Mr. Gamfield's countenance brightened, as, with a quick step, he returned to the table, and said,<…>” ( 16pg)

“In pursuance of this determination, little Oliver, to his excessive astonishment, was released from bondage, and ordered to put himself into a clean shirt.” ( 17pg)

“Mr. Bumble was stupefied with astonishment.”( 20pg.)

“In great families, when an advantageous place cannot be obtained, either in possession, reversion, remainder, or expectancy, for the young man who is growing up, it is a very general custom to send him to sea. “(21pg.)

“Mr. Sowerberry was much tickled at this: as of course he ought to be; and laughed a long time without cessation. “(22pg)

"Died from exposure to the cold, and want of the common necessaries of life,didn't they?' “ (22pg.)

“<…>-he pulled his cap over his eyes; and once more attaching himself to Mr. Bumble's coat cuff, was led away by that dignitary to a new scene of suffering.”(24 pg.)

“An unfinished coffin on black tressels, which stood in the middle of the shop, looked so gloomy and death-like that a cold tremble came over him,<…>(27pg.)

“<…> who having consoled him with the assurance that 'he'd catch it,' condescended to help him. Mr. Sowerberry came down soon after.”(28pg.)

“This is a very common and much-approved matrimonial course of treatment,<…>(30pg.)

“There was not so great a necessity for hurrying as Mr. Sowerberry had anticipated, however;<…>”(34pg.)

“'Pretty well, thank you, sir' replied Oliver, with considerable hesitation.”(34pg.)

“<…>and presented such a rueful face to the aged pauper who opened it, that even he, who saw nothing but rueful faces about him at the best of times, started back in astonishment.”(36pg.)

“`Mr. Bumble! Mr. Bumble!' cried Noah, with well-affected dismay:<…>”(36pg.)

``<...>he had sustained severe internal injury and damage, from which he was at that moment suffering the acutest torture<...>“(36pg.)

``Oh! what dreadful pain it is!“(36pg.)

``And the cocked hat and cane having been, by this time, adjusted to their owner's satisfaction, Mr. Bumble and Noah Claypole betook themselves with all speed to the undertaker's shop.“(37pg.)

```It's not Madness, ma'am,' replied Mr. Bumble, after a few moments of deep meditation.“(37pg.)

``<...>so there was a great deal of meekness and selfdevotion in her voluntarily remaining under Mr. Bumble's heavy accusation.“(37pg.)

``Oliver's clothes had been torn in the beating he had received; his face was bruised and scratched; <...>“(37pg.)

``To do him justice, he was, as far as his power went--it was not very extensive--kindly disposed towards the boy; perhaps, because it was his interest to be so;“ ( 39pg.)

“Oliver arose, and again unbarred the door. One timid look around--one moment's pause of hesitation--he had closed it behind him, and was in the open street.“(39pg.)

``As this consideration forced itself upon him, he slackened his pace a little, and meditated upon his means of getting there.``(41pg.)

``But Oliver's thoughts, like those of most other people, although they were extremely ready and active to point out his difficulties, were wholly at a loss to suggest any feasible mode of surmounting them<...>``(41 pg.)

``<...> but there were very few who took any notice of him:<...>“(41pg.)

“<...> and gave him what little she could afford--and more--with such kind and gentle words, and such tears of sympathy and compassion, that they sank deeper into Oliver's soul, than all the sufferings he had everundergone.“(42pg.)

“ <...>but the light only served to show the boy his own lonesomeness and desolation, as he sat, with bleeding feet and covered with dust, upon a door-step.“(42pg.)

“<...>but the boy remained in the same attitude of close observation so long, that Oliver raised his head, and returned his steady look.“(42pg.)

“The boy who addressed this inquiry to the young wayfarer, was about his own age: but one of the queerest looking boys that Oliver had even seen. “ (43pg.)

“Mr. Dawkin's appearance did not say a vast deal in favour of the comforts which his patron's interest obtained for those whom he took under his protection;“(pg.44)

“Under this impression, he secretly resolved to cultivate the good opinion of the old gentleman as quickly as possible;<...>“(43pg. )

“<...>if he found the Dodger incorrigible, as he more than half suspected he should, to decline the honour of his farther acquaintance.“(43pg.)

“The Jew grinned; and, making a low obeisance to Oliver, took him by the hand, and hoped he should have the honour of his intimate acquaintance.“(46pg.)

“There is a drowsy state, between sleeping and waking, when you dream more in five minutes with your eyes half open, <...>“(47pg.)

“At such time, a mortal knows just enough of what his mind is doing, to form some glimmering conception of its mighty powers, its bounding from earth and spurning time and space, when freed from the restraint of its corporeal associate.“(47pg.)

The examples concerning the VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS originate in verbs, as their name implies. They may be--of the same form as the simple verb. The verb, by altering its function, is used as a noun; as in the expressions, “mode of surmounting“; (2) Derived from verbs by changing the ending or adding a suffix: conception from concept, action from act,service from serve. In addition to this, in English, many abstract nouns are formed by adding noun-forming suffixes (-ness, -ity, -tion) to adjectives or verbs. Examples are happiness (from the adjective happy), circulation (from the verb circulate) and serenity (from the adjective serene). ATTRIBUTE NOUNS, expressing attributes or qualities are marked bold in the following sentences:

''The fact is, that there was considerable difficulty in inducing Oliver to take upon himself the office of respiration<…>''( 9pg.)

“<…> the item of mortality whose name is prefixed to the head of this chapter. “( 1pg.)

<…>it was the best thing for Oliver Twist that could by possibility have occurred.”(1pg.)

“ Oliver had been surrounded by careful grandmothers, anxious aunts, experienced nurses, and doctors of profound wisdom”(1pg.)

“As the young woman spoke, he rose, and advancing to the bed's head, said, with more kindness than might have been expected of him:<…>”(2pg.)

“She had walked some distance, for her shoes were worn to pieces;” (4pg.)

“For the next eight or ten months, Oliver was the victim of a systematic course of treachery and deception<…>”(5pg.)

“<…>where twenty or thirty other juvenile offenders against the poor-laws, rolled about the floor all day, without the inconvenience of too much food or too much clothing, under the parental superintendence of an elderly female,<…>”(5pg.)

“The elderly female was a woman of wisdom and experience;”(5pg.)

“<…>she had a very accurate perception of what was good for herself.”(5pg.)

“Thereby finding in the lowest depth a deeper still;”(5pg.)

“Mr. Bumble had a great idea of his oratorical powers and his importance.”(7pg.)

“<…>' observed Mrs. Mann, with captivating sweetness. “(7pg.)

“I--I drink your health with cheerfulness, Mrs. Mann'; and he swallowed half of it. (7pg.)

“Mrs Mann raised her hands in astonishment;”(8pg.)

“Hunger and recent ill-usage are great assistants if you want to cry;”(9pg.)

“<…>and a sense of his loneliness in the great wide world, sank into the child's heart for the first time. (9pg.)

“Oliver was rather astounded by this intelligence,<…>”(9pg.)

“For the combination of both these blessings in the one simple process of picking oakum, Oliver bowed low by the direction of the beadle, and was then hurried away to a large ward;”(9pg.)

“There is no saying how many applicants for relief, under these last two heads, might have started up in all classes of society, if it had not been coupled with the workhouse; but the board were long-headed men, and had provided for this difficulty.”(9pg.)

“Child as he was, he was desperate with hunger, and reckless with misery.”(12pg.)

“He gazed in stupified astonishment on the small rebel for some seconds, and then clung for support to the copper<…>”(12pg.)

“Mr. Bumble rushed into the room in great excitement,<…>”(12pg.)

“Oliver remained a close prisoner in the dark and solitary room to which he had been consigned by the wisdom and mercy of the board. “(14pg.)

“Oliver roused himself, and made his best obeisance.”(18pg.)

“Mr. Bumble shook his head with gloomy mystery, and said he wished he might come to good;” (20pg.)

“His features were not naturally intended to wear a smiling aspect, but he was in general rather given to professional jocosity.”(21pg.)

“His step was elastic, and his face betokened inward pleasantry, as he advanced to Mr. Bumble, and shook him cordially by the hand. “(21pg.)

“The simple fact was, that Oliver, instead of possessing too little feeling, possessed rather too much; and was in a fair way of being reduced, for life, to a state of brutal stupidity and sullenness by the ill usage he had received.” (24pg.)

“He heard the news of his destination, in perfect silence;”(24pg.)

“'So what?' inquired Mr. Bumble in amazement.”(25pg.)

“Then once more taking his hand, he walked on with him in silence.”(25pg.)

“I wish he could have witnessed the horrible avidity with which Oliver tore the bits asunder with all the ferocity of famine.”(26pg.)

“<…>which he cut into wedges, the size of his mouth, with a clasp-knife, and then consumed with great dexterity. “(28pg.)

“<…>she merely inquired, with much sharpness, why such an obvious suggestion had not presented itself to her husband's mind before?”(30pg.)

“Thus saying, Mr. Bumble put on his cocked hat wrong side first, in a fever of parochial excietment; and flounced out of the shop.”(30pg.)

“The terrified children cried bitterly; but the old woman, who had hitherto remained as quiet as if she had been wholly deaf to all that passed, menaced them into silence.(33pg.)

“ `What? What?' interposed Mr. Bumble: with a gleam of pleasure in his metallic eyes. ”( 36pg.)

“When Noah saw that the intelligence he communicated perfectly paralysed Mr. Bumble, he imparted additional effect thereunto.“(36pg.)

“`He has likewise attempted, sir, to murder the female servant,' said Mr. Bumble, with a face of ashy paleness.“(37pg.)

“The accounts of his ferocity as related by Mrs. Sowerberry and Charlotte, were of so startling a nature, that Mr. Bumble judged it prudent to parley, before opening the door.“(38pg.)

“It was not until he was left alone in the silence and stillness of the gloomy workshop of the undertaker, <...>“ (39pg.)

“The stone by which he was seated, bore, in large characters, an intimation that it was just seventy miles from that spot to London.“(41pg.)

“The sun was rising in all its splendid beauty; but the light only served to show the boy his own lonesomeness and desolation, as he sat, with bleeding feet and covered with dust, upon a door-step.“(42pg.)

“He had been crouching on the step for some time: wondering at the great number of public-houses <...>“(42pg.)

“ <...>gazing listlessly at the coaches as they passed through, and thinking how strange it seemed that they could do, with ease, in a few hours, what it had taken him a whole week of courage and determination beyond his years to accomplish:<...>“(42pg.)

“He had turned the cuffs back, half-way up his arm, to get his hands out of the sleeves: apparently with the ultimate view of thrusting them into the pockets of his corduroy trousers; for there he kept them. “ (43pg.)

“<...>yourself half conscious of everything that is passing around you, than you would in five nights with your eyes fast closed, and your senses wrapt in perfect unconsciousness.“(47pg.)

“`Lined?' inquired the Jew, with eagerness.“(47pg.)

“The visitors stopped a long time. Spirits were produced, in consequence of one of the young ladies complaining of a coldness in her inside; “(50pg.)

“Oliver was rendered the more anxious to be actively employed, by what he had seen of the stern morality of the old gentleman's character.“(52pg.)

“Whenever the Dodger or Charley Bates came home at night, empty-handed, he would expatiate with great vehemence on the misery of idle and lazy habits;<...>“(53pg.)

Conclusions

Abstract nouns are uncountable from the point of view of number. In English nouns referring to actions are derived from verbs by means of suffixes and endings in the same way as nouns referring to qualities are derived from adjectives. All nouns referring to actions and qualities are, in principle, uncountable and singular, except a few nouns which possess a plural ending. Yet, there is always the potentiality of every noun to form the plural. There are a number of suffixes and endings by means of which abstract nouns may be derived from verbs, adjectives and other parts of speech. The most productive suffixes that Charles Dickens used in his novel “Oliver Twist“ are:

-ation (hesitation, consideration) for abstract nouns derived from verbs and

- ness (paleness, lonesemness, sharpness) for abstract nouns derived from qualitative adjectives.

Other quite productive suffixes are -ion, -ment, etc.

56 equivalents are considered as countable nouns in English. 10 percent of equivalents have not been found. A number of abstract nouns in the two languages under analysis may sometimes be used in the plural. This always affects their lexical meaning. Usually such nouns acquire a more concrete meaning in the plural. Other possible, yet a lot rarer, changes in the shade of meaning result in the intensification of the lexical sense.