American and British slang

3

American and British slang

Contents

1. Introduction

1.1 What is slang?

1.2 Whazzup? How's it doing? Sup, Dawg?

2. Theoretical part “Slang”

2.1 Definition

2.2 Slang

2.3 Slangs. Where did they appear?

2.3.1 Origins of slang

2.3.2 Development of the slang

2.3.3 Creators of slang

3. More about slang!

3.1 Sources

3.2 Linguistic processes forming slang

3.3 Characteristics of slang

3.4 Diffusion of slang

3.5 Uses of slang

3.6 Attitudes toward slang

3.7 Formation

3.8 Position in the language

4. Practical part

4.1 Do the best you can

4.2 Do your research

4.3 Dictionary

4.4 Dictionary of youth slang during 1960-70's

4.5 Dictionary of modern British slang

5. Bibliography

1.Introduction

My graduation paper is devoted to the study of the topic “Slang” parts.

1.1 What is slang?

According to the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, slang is “very informal usage in vocabulary and idiom that is characteristically more metaphorical, playful, elliptical, vivid and ephemeral than ordinary language”. For example, a quick internet search revealed that the following are all slang terms for `excellent': phat; obese; shiznit and coolio. You can find examples of how these words are used in sentences on the websites about slangs.

It's, informal, nonstandard words and phrases, generally shorter lived than the expressions of ordinary colloquial speech, and typically formed by creative, often witty juxtapositions of words or images. Slang can be contrasted with jargon (technical language of occupational or other groups) and with argot or cant (secret vocabulary of underworld groups), but the borderlines separating these categories from slang are greatly blurred, and some writers use the terms cant, argot, and jargon in a general way to include all the foregoing meanings.

1.2 Whazzup? How's it going? Sup, Dawg?

If you are not sure what the above statements mean, you are not alone. Each year, international students like you master the English language only to discover, upon arrival in the United States, that they cannot follow all of the conversations that involve them. The reason: English as a Second Language (ESL) programs cannot adequately prepare them for the dizzying array of slang, idioms and colloquialisms that color everyday speech in America.

“Students can feel lost in conversations,” says Mark Algren, Language Specialist at the Applied Language Center at the University of Kansas. “The language they have learned in a classroom setting is not how people talk. “ He is quick to add, however, that ESL programs provide a good foundation on which students can build their language skills. “I find that students learn a lot of colloquialisms, slang and idioms very quickly.”

According to Algren, the best way to learn them is through everyday speech. Since slang changes so quickly and varies from one region to the next, language classes--particularly those taking place outside America--cannot really prepare students to understand it.

What will help? Take the following steps and, over time, you will be able to understand what your peers are saying; you may even find American slang, colloquialisms and idioms slipping into your own speech. Interact with Americans and other native English speakers. As you settle into campus life, you will begin to form new friendships. Although it may seem easier to approach other international students at first, reach out to people from a wide range of backgrounds, including Americans. By doing so you will enjoy rich and rewarding cross-cultural experiences and--as a bonus--you will learn the intricacies of the language from a native English speaker.

2. Theoretical part

2.1 Definition

Main Entry: 1slang Pronunciation: 'sla[ng] Function: noun Etymology: origin unknown Date: 1756

1 : language peculiar to a particular group: as a : ARGOT b : JARGON 2

2 : an informal nonstandard vocabulary composed typically of coinages, arbitrarily changed words, and extravagant, forced, or facetious figures of speech

- slang adjective

- slang·i·ly /'sla[ng]-&-lE/ adverb

- slang·i·ness /'sla[ng]-E-n&s/ noun

- slangy /'sla[ng]-E/ adjective

Main Entry: 2slang Date: 1828 intransitive senses : to use slang or vulgar abuse transitive senses : to abuse with harsh or coarse language

Main Entry: rhyming slang Function: noun Date: 1859: slang in which the word intended is replaced by a word or phrase that rhymes with it (as loaf of bread for head) or the first part of the phrase (as loaf for head)

Source: Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary

2.2 Slang

Nonstandard vocabulary composed of words or senses characterized primarily by connotations of extreme informality and usually by a currency not limited to a particular region. It is composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced, or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties.

Slang consists of the words and expressions that have escaped from the cant, jargon and argot (and to a lesser extent from dialectal, nonstandard, and taboo speech) of specific subgroups of society so that they are known and used by an appreciable percentage of the general population, even though the words and expressions often retain some associations with the subgroups that originally used and popularized them. Thus, slang is a middle ground for words and expressions that have become too popular to be any longer considered as part of the more restricted categories, but that are not yet (and may never become) acceptable or popular enough to be considered informal or standard. (Compare the slang "hooker" and the standard "prostitute.")

Under the terms of such a definition, "cant" comprises the restricted, non-technical words and expressions of any particular group, as an occupational, age, ethnic, hobby, or special-interest group. (Cool, uptight, do your thing were youth cant of the late 1960s before they became slang.) "Jargon" is defined as the restricted, technical, or shoptalk words and expressions of any particular group, as an occupational, trade, scientific, artistic, criminal, or other group. (Finals used by printers and by students, Fannie May by money men, preemie by obstetricians were jargon before they became slang.) "Argot" is merely the combined cant and jargon of thieves, criminals, or any other underworld group. (Hit used by armed robbers; scam by corporate confidence men.)

Slang fills a necessary niche in all languages, occupying a middle ground between the standard and informal words accepted by the general public and the special words and expressions known only to comparatively small social subgroups. It can serve as a bridge or a barrier, either helping both old and new words that have been used as "insiders' " terms by a specific group of people to enter the language of the general public or, on the other hand, preventing them from doing so. Thus, for many words, slang is a testing ground that finally proves them to be generally useful, appealing, and acceptable enough to become standard or informal. For many other words, slang is a testing ground that shows them to be too restricted in use, not as appealing as standard synonyms, or unnecessary, frivolous, faddish, or unacceptable for standard or informal speech. For still a third group of words and expressions, slang becomes not a final testing ground that either accepts or rejects them for general use but becomes a vast limbo, a permanent holding ground, an area of speech that a word never leaves. Thus, during various times in history, American slang has provided cowboy, blizzard, okay, racketeer, phone, gas, and movie for standard or informal speech. It has tried and finally rejected conbobberation (disturbance), krib (room or apartment), lucifer (match), tomato (girl), and fab (fabulous) from standard or informal speech. It has held other words such as bones (dice), used since the 14th century, and beat it (go away), used since the 16th century, in a permanent grasp, neither passing them on to standard or informal speech nor rejecting them from popular, long-term use.

Slang words cannot be distinguished from other words by sound or meaning. Indeed, all slang words were once cant, jargon, argot, dialect, nonstandard, or taboo. For example, the American slang to neck (to kiss and caress) was originally student cant; flattop (an aircraft carrier) was originally navy jargon; and pineapple (a bomb or hand grenade) was originally criminal argot. Such words did not, of course, change their sound or meaning when they became slang. Many slang words, such as blizzard, mob, movie, phone, gas, and others, have become informal or standard and, of course, did not change in sound or meaning when they did so. In fact, most slang words are homonyms of standard words, spelled and pronounced just like their standard counterparts, as for example (American slang), cabbage (money), cool (relaxed), and pot (marijuana). Of course, the words cabbage, cool, and pot sound alike in their ordinary standard use and in their slang use. Each word sounds just as appealing or unappealing, dull or colourful in its standard as in its slang use. Also, the meanings of cabbage and money, cool and relaxed, pot and marijuana are the same, so it cannot be said that the connotations of slang words are any more colourful or racy than the meanings of standard words.

All languages, countries, and periods of history have slang. This is true because they all have had words with varying degrees of social acceptance and popularity.

All segments of society use some slang, including the most educated, cultivated speakers and writers. In fact, this is part of the definition of slang. For example, George Washington used redcoat (British soldier); Winston Churchill used booze (liquor); and Lyndon B. Johnson used cool it (calm down, shut up).

The same linguistic processes are used to create and popularize slang as are used to create and popularize all other words. That is, all words are created and popularized in the same general ways; they are labeled slang only according to their current social acceptance, long after creation and popularization.

Slang is not the language of the underworld, nor does most of it necessarily come from the underworld. The main sources of slang change from period to period. Thus, in one period of American slang, frontiersmen, cowboys, hunters, and trappers may have been the main source; during some parts of the 1920s and '30s the speech of baseball players and criminals may have been the main source; at other times, the vocabulary of jazz musicians, soldiers, or college students may have been the main source.

To fully understand slang, one must remember that a word's use, popularity, and acceptability can change. Words can change in social level, moving in any direction. Thus, some standard words of William Shakespeare's day are found only in certain modern-day British dialects or in the dialect of the southern United States. Words that are taboo in one era (e.g., stomach, thigh) can become accepted, standard words in a later era. Language is dynamic, and at any given time hundreds, and perhaps thousands, of words and expressions are in the process of changing from one level to another, of becoming more acceptable or less acceptable, of becoming more popular or less popular.

2.3 Slangs. From where did they appear?

2.3.1 Origins of slang

Slang tends to originate in subcultures within a society. Occupational groups (for example, loggers, police, medical professionals, and computer specialists) are prominent originators of both jargon and slang; other groups creating slang include the armed forces, teenagers, racial minorities, ghetto residents, labor unions, citizens-band radiobroadcasters, sports groups, drug addicts, criminals, and even religious denominations (Episcopalians, for example, produced spike, a High Church Anglican). Slang expressions often embody attitudes and values of group members. They may thus contribute to a sense of group identity and may convey to the listener information about the speaker's background. Before an apt expression becomes slang, however, it must be widely adopted by members of the subculture. At this point slang and jargon overlap greatly. If the subculture has enough contact with the mainstream culture, its figures of speech become slang expressions known to the whole society. For example, cat (a sport), cool (aloof, stylish), Mr. Charley (a white man), The Man (the law), and Uncle Tom (a meek black) all originated in the predominantly black Harlem district of New York City and have traveled far since their inception. Slang is thus generally not tied to any geographic region within a country.

A slang expression may suddenly become widely used and as quickly date (23-skiddoo). It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its original slang meaning (bus, from omnibus) or with an altered, possibly tamed meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual connotations). Some expressions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for alcoholic beverage). In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have speeded up both the circulation and the demise of slang terms. Television and novels have turned criminal cant into slang (five grand for $5000). Changing social circumstances may stimulate the spread of slang. Drug-related expressions (such as pot and marijuana) were virtually a secret jargon in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth; and in the 1970s and '80s they were widely known.

2.3.2 Development of slang

Slang emanates from conflicts in values, sometimes superficial, often fundamental. When an individual applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule, or contempt, often with sharp wit, he may be creating slang, but the new expression will perish unless it is picked up by others. If the speaker is a member of a group that finds that his creation projects the emotional reaction of its members toward an idea, person, or social institution, the expression will gain currency according to the unanimity of attitude within the group. A new slang term is usually widely used in a subculture before it appears in the dominant culture. Thus slang--e.g., "sucker," "honkey," "shave-tail," "jerk"--expresses the attitudes, not always derogatory, of one group or class toward the values of another. Slang sometimes stems from within the group, satirizing or burlesquing its own values, behaviour, and attitudes; e.g., "shotgun wedding," "cake eater," "greasy spoon." Slang, then, is produced largely by social forces rather than by an individual speaker or writer who, single-handed (like Horace Walpole, who coined "serendipity" more than 200 years ago), creates and establishes a word in the language. This is one reason why it is difficult to determine the origin of slang terms.

2.3.3 Creators of slang

Civilized society tends to divide into a dominant culture and various subcultures that flourish within the dominant framework. The subcultures show specialized linguistic phenomena, varying widely in form and content, that depend on the nature of the groups and their relation to each other and to the dominant culture. The shock value of slang stems largely from the verbal transfer of the values of a subculture to diametrically opposed values in the dominant culture. Names such as fuzz, pig, fink, bull, and dick for policemen were not created by officers of the law. (The humorous "dickless tracy," however, meaning a policewoman, was coined by male policemen.)

Occupational groups are legion, and while in most respects they identify with the dominant culture, there is just enough social and linguistic hostility to maintain group solidarity. Terms such as scab, strike-breaker, company-man, and goon were highly charged words in the era in which labour began to organize in the United States; they are not used lightly even today, though they have been taken into the standard language.

In addition to occupational and professional groups, there are many other types of subcultures that supply slang. These include sexual deviants, narcotic addicts, ghetto groups, institutional populations, agricultural subsocieties, political organizations, the armed forces, Gypsies, and sports groups of many varieties. Some of the most fruitful sources of slang are the subcultures of professional criminals who have migrated to the New World since the 16th century. Old-time thieves still humorously refer to themselves as FFV--First Families of Virginia.

In criminal subcultures, pressure applied by the dominant culture intensifies the internal forces already at work, and the argot forming there emphasizes the values, attitudes, and techniques of the subculture. Criminal groups seem to evolve about this specialized argot, and both the subculture and its slang expressions proliferate in response to internal and external pressures.

3. More about slangs!

3.1 Sources

Most subcultures tend to draw words and phrases from the contiguous language (rather than creating many new words) and to give these established terms new and special meanings; some borrowings from foreign languages, including the American Indian tongues, are traditional. The more learned occupations or professions like medicine, law, psychology, sociology, engineering, and electronics tend to create true neologisms, often based on Greek or Latin roots, but these are not major sources for slang, though nurses and medical students adapt some medical terminology to their slang, and air force personnel and some other branches of the armed services borrow freely from engineering and electronics.

3.2 Linguistic processes forming slang

The processes by which words become slang are the same as those by which other words in the language change their form or meaning or both. Some of these are the employment of metaphor, simile, folk etymology, distortion of sounds in words, generalization, specialization, clipping, the use of acronyms, elevation and degeneration, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, borrowings from foreign languages, and the play of euphemism against taboo. The English word trip is an example of a term that has undergone both specialization and generalization. It first became specialized to mean a psychedelic experience resulting from the drug LSD. Subsequently, it generalized again to mean any experience on any drug, and beyond that to any type of "kicks" from anything. Clipping is exemplified by the use of "grass" from "laughing grass," a term for marijuana. "Funky," once a very low term for body odour, has undergone elevation among jazz buffs to signify "the best"; "fanny," on the other hand, once simply a girl's name, is currently a degenerated term that refers to the buttocks (in England, it has further degenerated into a taboo word for the female genitalia). There is also some actual coinage of slang terms.

3.3 Characteristics of slang

Psychologically, most good slang harks back to the stage in human culture when animism was a worldwide religion. At that time, it was believed that all objects had two aspects, one external and objective that could be perceived by the senses, the other imperceptible (except to gifted individuals) but identical with what we today would call the "real" object. Human survival depended upon the manipulation of all "real" aspects of life--hunting, reproduction, warfare, weapons, design of habitations, nature of clothing or decoration, etc.--through control or influence upon the animus, or imperceptible phase of reality. This influence was exerted through many aspects of sympathetic magic, one of the most potent being the use of language. Words, therefore, had great power, because they evoked the things to which they referred.

Civilized cultures and their languages retain many remnants of animism, largely on the unconscious level. In Western languages, the metaphor owes its power to echoes of sympathetic magic, and slang utilizes certain attributes of the metaphor to evoke images too close for comfort to "reality." For example, to refer to a woman as a "broad" is automatically to increase her girth in an area in which she may fancy herself as being thin. Her reaction may, thus, be one of anger and resentment, if she happens to live in a society in which slim hips are considered essential to feminine beauty. Slang, then, owes much of its power to shock to the superimposition of images that are incongruous with images (or values) of others, usually members of the dominant culture. Slang is most popular when its imagery develops incongruity bordering on social satire. Every slang word, however, has its own history and reasons for popularity. When conditions change, the term may change in meaning, be adopted into the standard language, or continue to be used as slang within certain enclaves of the population. Nothing is flatter than dead slang. In 1910, for instance, "Oh you kid" and "23-skiddoo" were quite stylish phrases in the U.S. but they have gone with the hobble skirt. Children, however, unaware of anachronisms, often revive old slang under a barrage of older movies rerun on television.

Some slang becomes respectable when it loses its edge; "spunk," "fizzle," "spent," "hit the spot," "jazz," "funky," and "p.o.'d," once thought to be too indecent for feminine ears, are now family words. Other slang survives for centuries, like "bones" for dice (Chaucer), "beat it" for run away (Shakespeare), "duds" for clothes, and "booze" for liquor (Dekker). These words must have been uttered as slang long before appearing in print, and they have remained slang ever since. Normally, slang has both a high birth and death rate in the dominant culture, and excessive use tends to dull the lustre of even the most colourful and descriptive words and phrases. The rate of turnover in slang words is undoubtedly encouraged by the mass media, and a term must be increasingly effective to survive.

While many slang words introduce new concepts, some of the most effective slang provides new expressions--fresh, satirical, shocking--for established concepts, often very respectable ones. Sound is sometimes used as a basis for this type of slang, as, for example, in various phonetic distortions (e.g., pig Latin terms). It is also used in rhyming slang, which employs a fortunate combination of both sound and imagery. Thus, gloves are "turtledoves" (the gloved hands suggesting a pair of billing doves), a girl is a "twist and twirl" (the movement suggesting a girl walking), and an insulting imitation of flatus, produced by blowing air between the tip of the protruded tongue and the upper lip, is the "raspberry," cut back from "raspberry tart." Most slang, however, depends upon incongruity of imagery, conveyed by the lively connotations of a novel term applied to an established concept. Slang is not all of equal quality, a considerable body of it reflecting a simple need to find new terms for common ones, such as the hands, feet, head, and other parts of the body. Food, drink, and sex also involve extensive slang vocabulary. Strained or synthetically invented slang lacks verve, as can be seen in the desperate efforts of some sportswriters to avoid mentioning the word baseball--e.g., a batter does not hit a baseball but rather "swats the horsehide," "plasters the pill," "hefts the old apple over the fence," and so on.

The most effective slang operates on a more sophisticated level and often tells something about the thing named, the person using the term, and the social matrix against which it is used. Pungency may increase when full understanding of the term depends on a little inside information or knowledge of a term already in use, often on the slang side itself. For example, the term Vatican roulette (for the rhythm system of birth control) would have little impact if the expression Russian roulette were not already in wide usage.

3.4 Diffusion of slang

Slang invades the dominant culture as it seeps out of various subcultures. Some words fall dead or lie dormant in the dominant culture for long periods. Others vividly express an idea already latent in the dominant culture and these are immediately picked up and used. Before the advent of mass media, such terms invaded the dominant culture slowly and were transmitted largely by word of mouth. Thus a term like snafu, its shocking power softened with the explanation "situation normal, all fouled up," worked its way gradually from the military in World War II by word of mouth (because the media largely shunned it) into respectable circles. Today, however, a sportscaster, news reporter, or comedian may introduce a lively new word already used by an in-group into millions of homes simultaneously, giving it almost instant currency. For example, the term uptight was first used largely by criminal narcotic addicts to indicate the onset of withdrawal distress when drugs are denied. Later, because of intense journalistic interest in the drug scene, it became widely used in the dominant culture to mean anxiety or tension unrelated to drug use. It kept its form but changed its meaning slightly.

Other terms may change their form or both form and meaning, like "one for the book" (anything unusual or unbelievable). Sportswriters in the U.S. borrowed this term around 1920 from the occupational language of then legal bookmakers, who lined up at racetracks in the morning ("the morning line" is still figuratively used on every sports page) to take bets on the afternoon races. Newly arrived bookmakers went to the end of the line, and any bettor requesting unusually long odds was motioned down the line with the phrase, "That's one for the end book." The general public dropped the "end" as meaningless, but old-time gamblers still retain it. Slang spreads through many other channels, such as popular songs, which, for the initiate, are often rich in double entendre.

When subcultures are structurally tight, little of their language leaks out. Thus the Mafia, in more than a half-century of powerful criminal activity in America, has contributed little slang.

When subcultures weaken, contacts with the dominant culture multiply, diffusion occurs, and their language appears widely as slang. Criminal narcotic addicts, for example, had a tight subculture and a highly secret argot in the 1940s; now their terms are used freely by middle-class teenagers, even those with no real knowledge of drugs.

3.5 Uses of slang

In some cases slang may provide a needed name for an object or action (walkie-talkie, a portable two-way radio; tailgating, driving too close behind another vehicle), or it may offer an emotional outlet (buzz off! for go away!) or a satirical or patronizing reference (smokey, state highway trooper). It may provide euphemisms (john, head, can, and in Britain, loo, all for toilet, itself originally a euphemism), and it may allow its user to create a shock effect by using a pungent slang expression in an unexpected context. Slang has provided myriad synonyms for parts of the body (bean, head; schnozzle, nose), for money (moola, bread, scratch), for food (grub, slop, garbage), and for drunkenness (soused, stewed, plastered).

Slang is used for many purposes, but generally it expresses a certain emotional attitude; the same term may express diametrically opposed attitudes when used by different people. Many slang terms are primarily derogatory, though they may also be ambivalent when used in intimacy or affection. Some crystallize or bolster the self-image or promote identification with a class or in-group. Others flatter objects, institutions, or persons but may be used by different people for the opposite effect. "Jesus freak," originally used as ridicule, was adopted as a title by certain street evangelists. Slang sometimes insults or shocks when used directly; some terms euphemize a sensitive concept, though obvious or excessive euphemism may break the taboo more effectively than a less decorous term. Some slang words are essential because there are no words in the standard language expressing exactly the same meaning; e.g., "freak-out," "barn-storm," "rubberneck," and the noun "creep." At the other extreme, multitudes of words, vague in meaning, are used simply as fads.

There are many other uses to which slang is put, according to the individual and his place in society. Since most slang is used on the spoken level, by persons who probably are unaware that it is slang, the choice of terms naturally follows a multiplicity of unconscious thought patterns. When used by writers, slang is much more consciously and carefully chosen to achieve a specific effect. Writers, however, seldom invent slang.

It has been claimed that slang is created by ingenious individuals to freshen the language, to vitalize it, to make the language more pungent and picturesque, to increase the store of terse and striking words, or to provide a vocabulary for new shades of meaning. Most of the originators and purveyors of slang, however, are probably not conscious of these noble purposes and do not seem overly concerned about what happens to their language.

3.6 Attitudes toward slang

With the rise of naturalistic writing demanding realism, slang began to creep into English literature even though the schools waged warfare against it, the pulpit thundered against it, and many women who aspired to gentility and refinement banished it from the home. It flourished underground, however, in such male sanctuaries as lodges, poolrooms, barbershops, and saloons.

By 1925 a whole new generation of U.S. and European naturalistic writers was in revolt against the Victorian restraints that had caused even Mark Twain to complain, and today any writer may use slang freely, especially in fiction and drama. It has become an indispensable tool in the hands of master satirists, humorists, and journalists. Slang is now socially acceptable, not just because it is slang but because, when used with skill and discrimination, it adds a new and exciting dimension to language. At the same time, it is being seriously studied by linguists and other social scientists as a revealing index to the culture that produces and uses it.

3.7 Formation

Slang expressions are created by the same processes that affect ordinary speech. Expressions may take form as metaphors, similes, and other figures of speech (dead as a doornail). Words may acquire new meanings (cool, cat). A narrow meaning may become generalized (fink, originally a strikebreaker, later a betrayer or disappointer) or vice-versa (heap, a run-down car). Words may be clipped, or abbreviated (mike, microphone), and acronyms may gain currency (VIP, awol, snafu). A foreign suffix may be added (the Yiddish and Russian -nik in beatnik) and foreign words adopted (baloney, from Bologna). A change in meaning may make a vulgar word acceptable (jazz) or an acceptable word vulgar (raspberry, a sound imitating flatus; from raspberry tart in the rhyming slang of Australia and Cockney London; Sometimes words are newly coined (oomph, sex appeal, and later, energy or impact).

3.8 Position in the Language

Slang is one of the vehicles through which languages change and become renewed, and its vigor and color enrich daily speech. Although it has gained respectability in the 20th century, in the past it was often loudly condemned as vulgar. Nevertheless, Shakespeare brought into acceptable usage such slang terms as hubbub, to bump, and to dwindle, and 20th-century writers have used slang brilliantly to convey character and ambience. Slang appears at all times and in all languages. A person's head was kapala (dish) in Sanskrit, testa (pot) in Latin; testa later became the standard Latin word for head. Among Western languages, English, French, Spanish, Italian, German, Yiddish, Romanian, and Romany (Gypsy) are particularly rich in slang.

4. Practical part

4.1 Do the best you can

You will quickly realize that most Americans want to see you succeed. They are curious about your culture and willing to help you express yourself clearly. Many of your teachers and peers have traveled to other countries in the past. They understand how difficult it can be to speak a foreign language, particularly one with lots of regional variation. They will understand that you are doing the best you can. You may even develope a few tricks to help you get by in various circumstances. One of Algren's colleagues reported that a Brazilian friend considers `get' to be the most useful English verb. “Whenever she does not know what to say she will use `get': I need to get ready; where do I get the bus; I do not know what to get in the coffee shop.”

4.2 Do your research

If you are curious, google the term {college slang} to find a list of some of the words and phrases commonly used on American campuses. (Google is a common slang term referring to internet research.)

College slang is not a new phenomenon in the US. Every generation--and most geographical regions--have had their own way of expressing themselves throughout the years. For an interesting overview, see Slang and Sociability: In-group Language Among College Students by Dr. Connie Eble, Professor of English at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Another popular book is Slam Dunk and Other No-Brainers by Leslie Slavin. Listen closely to everyday speech.

Although people who like to research language--and have ready access to the internet--may be interested in reading more about slang, idioms and colloquialisms, it is not necessary. Truthfully, the most effective way to learn about it is to listen for it in everyday speech. When you hear something unfamiliar, ask someone to explain it to you. If you are not able to ask right away, make a note of it. To the best of your ability, memorize the word or phrase as well as the context in which it was used; write it down if possible. Later, ask a friend, teacher or English tutor what it means. Avoid dangerous words and phrases. Learn what words to avoid, especially curses and expletives. English is a colorful language. Many international students find that swear words as well as other derogatory, offensive or insulting terms are used more freely and publicly in the US than in their home country.

4.3 Dictionary

4.3.1 Dictionary of youth slang during 1960-70's

acid (n) LSD, a narcotic drug popular among hippies. see psychedelic, bad trip.

afro (n) haircut popular among African-americans during 1960's and '70's.

aquarian (adj.) we're not sure exactly what this means, but it has something to do with the "Age of Aquarius" and the musical Hair.

bad scene (n) a bad situation. see scene.

bad trip (n) originally described a bad experience using drugs, characterized by frightening hallucinations. Can be used to describe any bad experience.

bag (n) one's main interest or purpose in life.

black light (n) a decorative light, dark blue in color to the human eye, which makes objects or artwork in flourescent colors appear to glow.

blow your mind (v) to have an enlightening or illuminating experience.

bread (n) money.

bummer (n) bad experience.

bust (v) to arrest someone, (n) an arrest.

cat (n) a person. derived from beatnik language of the 1950's.

chick (n) a girl or woman.

commune (n) an community of people who share possessions, living accomodations, and work (or lack thereof). Usually encompasses a farm and other fashionable industries.

crash (v) to sleep, rest, or do nothing.

crash pad (n) a place where one sleeps, rests, or does nothing.

dig (v) like, enjoy, be interested in.

drag (n) an unfavorable situation or state of affairs.

dude (n) person, usually male.

establishment, the (n) traditional business and government institutions, believed to stand in the way of human progress. see "system, the."

far out (adj) very interesting, good. Also an exclamation.

free love (n) love without expectations or commitment.

fuzz (n) police.

get it on (n) successfully interact with others.

groove (v) enjoy, achieve proficiency at. see "groovy."

groovy (adj) good, interesting, enjoyable.

hang out (v) to be some place, usually doing nothing, with no purpose.

hang-up (n) inhibition, usually due to morals, beliefs, or culture.

happening (adj) exciting, new, good.

heavy (adj) thought-provoking.

hippie (n) [still searching for a definition here]. hip (adj) knowledgable of, or consistent with, the latest trends and ideas.

Iron Butterfly (n) a rock band which had one popular song, "Inna Gadda Da Vida."

lava lamp (n) a cylindrical glass container filled a semi-solid viscous material which breaks apart and forms globules while floating in a clear fluid.

like (?) word used to fill up space in an utterance when the speaker is unable to think of a suitable adjective to describe something. Use of this word has also been adopted by adjective-challenged subcultures of more recent generations.

love beads (n) colorful beads worn around the neck to symbolize love.

man (interjection) used as an exclamation to draw attention to one's utterance. related phrase: "hey, man."

mood ring (n) a ring worn on the finger which contains a large stone, the color of which is supposed to indicate the wearer's emotional mood. Mood rings were a fad in the mid-1970's.

oh wow (interjection) exclamation uttered in response to new, thought-provoking, or exciting information.

out of sight (adj) excellent, outstanding. Often used as an exclamation.
pad (n) living accomodation--house or apartment.

peace (n) absence of war.

psychedelic (adj) of or related to a mental state characterized by a profound sense of intensified sensory perception, sometimes accompanied by severe perceptual distortion, hallucinations, or extreme feelings of euphoria or despair. see acid.

rap (v,n) to talk, conversation. More recently used to name a category of music where words are spoken, rather than sung.

San Francisco (n) worldwide center of hippie activity and general weirdness.

scene (n) place, situation, or circumstances.

sock it to me (phrase) let me have it.

spaced out (adj) dazed, not alert.

split (v) to leave, depart.

square (adj) old-fashioned, not aware of new thinking and customs. (n) one who is square.

system, the (n) the system of laws, governance, and justice. see "establishment, the".

tie dye (v) a method of coloring clothing where the article of clothing is tied in knots, then dying it to produce an abstract pattern. (n) an article of clothing dyed in this manner.

trip (n) an unusual experience. (v) to have an unusual experience.

turn on (v) to become enlightened to new ways of thinking or experiencing reality.

uptight (adj) concerned about maintaining set ways of thinking and doing things.

4.3.2 Dictionary of modern British slang

These phrases are in everyday use around most of Britain.

Phrase Meaning

99 a popular style of ice cream, usually ordered with a 'flake'

'A' levels exams taken at age 18

abso-bloody-lutely a more definite form of 'absolutely'

afters dessert

aggro trouble; violence

all broke up on holiday, usually from school

all of a twitter very nervous or apprehensive

aluminium aluminum

arse bottom, or ass

arse bandit a homosexual

arse over tit to fall head over heels

arse about playing around, being silly

e.g. "stop arsing about!"

artic an articulated lorry; a bick truck

Aussie an Australian

backhander a bribe

bag an unattractive or elderly woman

balderdash rubbish; nonsense

balls-up a mess; a confusion

banger (1) an old car; (2) a sausage

barking mad crazy

batty dotty; crazy

beak magistrate

beehive a tall hairstyle

bees knees something really good

beetle crusher a boot; a foot

behind bottom; buttocks

berk a stupid person

e.g. "you silly berk"

bevvy a drink

bit of fluff a pretty young single woman

bill, the police, sometimes called "the old bill"

binge a drinking bout

bin liner garbage bag

bin men garbage collectors

bint a rough girl

biro a ballpoint pen

bit of alright something highly satisfactory

black maria a police van

black pudding a sausage like food made from

- pigs blood

- oats

- fat

black sheep of the family a relative who gets into trouble with the police

blag a robbery; to rob

blagger a robber

Blighty England

blimey ! an expression of surprise

blob a contraceptive

blotto drunk

blower telephone

blow your own trumpet to brag; to boast

bobby dazzler a remarkable person or thing

bog a toilet, a washroom

bollock naked stark naked

bollocks testicles

bonce head

bonk to copulate

bonnet hood of a car

bookie betting shop owner

boot trunk of a car

boracic penniless

bosch a derogative term for germans

bovver trouble

bovver boot a heavy boot, possibly with a toe cap and laces

quite often worn by skinheads

bovver boy a hooligan; a troublemaker

brass monkey weather cold, taken from the phrase, "it's cold enough

to freeze the balls off a brass monkey"

breakdown van a tow truck

brickie a bricklayer

brill ! short form of brilliant, meaning fantastic

brolly an umbrella

browned off bored; fed up

Brummy a native of Birmingham

bubble and squeak fried cabbage and potatoes

bubbly champagne

bugger all nothing; very little

bumming a fag requesting a cigarette

e.g. "Can I bum a fag from you mate ?"

Note: This has a VERY different meaning

in the U.S.

bunch of fives a fist

"button it !" "be quiet !"

caff a cafe

cake hole a person's mouth

cardy abbreviation of cardigan

champers champagne

char tea; a domestic worker

cheeky monkey a rude person

cheesed off bored; fed up

chin chin a drinking toast

chippy a fish and chip shop; a carpenter

chokey prison

chuffed very pleased or proud

clapped out worn out, broken

clappers to go very fast; to work hard

e.g. That car goes like the clappers !

e.g. I have to work like the clappers

to finish it by lunchtime !

clickety click 66 in bingo calling

clink prison

clinker somebody who is outstanding

clobber clothing

clodhopper a clumsy person

clogger a soccer player who tackles heavily

clot a fool

cloth-ears a person with a poor sense of hearing

cobblers testicles; rubbish

cock and bull a story with very little truth in it

cock up to ruin something

e.g. "it was a real cock-up"

e.g. "haved you cocked it up ?"

coffin nail a cigarette

conk nose

conkers a childrens game played with horse chestnuts

copper police man/woman

cough up to pay

crackers crazy

cracking great; fantastic

crackling a woman who is regarded as a sexual object

crate an old name for a very old plane

create to make a fuss or an angry scene

crown jewels male genitalia

crumbly an old or senile person

crumpet a desirable woman

dabs fingerprints

daft stupid

dark horse somebody who suprises others by their actions

des res Estate agents use this to describe a

"desirable residence"

dial face

dickie bow a bow tie

diddicoy a gipsy

dip a pickpocket

dishy good looking

do a runner to leave quickly avoiding punishment

doddle easy

dog's bollocks something really good

dog's breakfast a mess

donkey's breakfast a straw hat

doodah to be in a state of excitement

e.g. "He was all in a doodah !"

doolally scatter-brained; crazy

doorstep a thick sandwich

dosh money

doss house a cheap lodging house

dosser a tramp

do the dirty on to play a mean trick on

dough money

droopy drawers an untidy or sloppy person

drop a sprog have a baby

drum a house or flat

duffer a stupid person

dummy a baby's pacifier

earful to get a shouting

e.g. "My mum gave me a right earful !"

easy-peasy something very simple

earner a lucrative job or task

elevenses morning tea break

extracting the urine see "taking the piss"

fab fabulous; wonderful

face-ache a miserable looking person

fag cigarette

fag-end a cigarette butt

fence a receiver of stolen goods

filth, the police

fishy about the gills looking the worse for drink

fizzog face

flake a stick that is made up of flaky

pieces of chocolate

flicks, the the cinema

flog to sell

footy football; soccer

fuzz, the police

gamboll a somersault done on the ground

gamp an umbrella

gentleman's gentleman a valet

Geordie a native of Newcastle

gift of the gab being very free with speech

git an insult

e.g. "You stupid git !"

give it a whirl try it out

give someone the pip to get on someone's nerves

gob mouth

gobsmacked speechless

goes like stink very fast

good nick very good condition

gooseberry a fifth wheel

goosegog a gooseberry

go to the dogs to go to ruin

grass, grasser an informant

hang about wait a moment

hell for leather very fast

hols holidays

home and dry to be safe

hush silence

inexpressibles trousers

in good fettle in good health

in the altogether nude

in the know to have inside information

in the noddy nude

jam packed very full

jar a drink, usually a pint of beer

jelly jello

jerry a chamber pot

jerry builder a builder of unsubstantial houses

Jock a scottish person

Jonah a bringer of bad luck

jumped up to be conceited

jumper sweater

keep you hair on please calm down

kick the bucket to die

kissed the Blarney Stone a person who tells tall stories

knackered tired, worn out

derived from horses being taken to the

'knackers yard'

knockers breasts

leg it ! quick lets run !

legless drunk

like a rat out of a very fast

load of bollocks you're talking crap

utter nonesense

loo a toilet; a washroom

Liverpudlian a native of Liverpool (also see Scouser)

lorry a truck

man in blue a policeman

marmite a spread for sandwiches

me old cock my old friend

mind your P's and Q's to be careful; to be polite

moggy cat

mom`s the word it's a secret between you and me

can be abbreviated to "Keep mom !"

money for jam an easy job

money for old rope an easy job

mother's ruin gin

mucker mate, friend

mucky pup someone who has soiled themselves

e.g. "You mucky pup !"

mug face

mutton chops side whiskers