Semantic Changing of a Word

This means is also reffened to the ways of enriching the vocabulary and it's connected with the different periods in the history of a language and the changing in it in the connection with this processes.

Semantic changing can be gradual and momentary.

To the gradual we reffer specialization, generalization, elevation and degradation. It means that the meaning of a word can become in the course of time more special or general, better or worse.

E.g. room (spec.) - to fly (gener.),

Steward, morshal (elev) - villian, blackquard (degr.)

To the momentary we can reffer metaphor ( the transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison), metonymy (the transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity), hyperbole (exxageration), litote (the usage of negative instead of position and visa versa).

e.g. bottle - neck (metaphor), a head of a procession, Pentagon the first violing (metonymy), You're a nightmare (hyperbole), good - not bad, not bad - could be better (libote).

Polysemy and homonymy

Polysemy

This word calls the process of plurality of meaning. Polysemy exist only in the language, not in speech. In different context we can observe cases of indentical or different meanings.

A word which has more than 1 meaning is called polysemantic.

Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come together due to prosimity of notions which they express.

e.g. “blanket”

Polysemy does not intefere with the communicative functions of the language because in every particular case the situation or the context canceals all the meanings of the word but one makes the speech coherent.

In English as in many languages the number of meanings is large than the number of words. That's why most of words are polysemantic.

While analysing Polyseme we can come to the conclusion that there are 2 processes of the semantic development of a word. They are 1) radiation and 2) concotination.

In cases of radiation the primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary one proceeds out of it like rays.

Sometime the secondary meaning may become the source of the following development of the meaning and these meanings are connected like a chain. In such we have concotination.

E.g. “crust”. Primary - upper past of a bread - similar cases (корочка пирога), - harder layer over soft snow - “a sublem gloomy person” - imprudence. The last one is not connected with the first one.

homonymy

Classification of English homonyms:

1) Perfect homonyms or words identical both in pronunciation and in spelling but different in meaning, e. g. bear (ведмідь) --bear (носити, родити); pale (кіл, паля) --pale (блідий, тьмяний)

2) Homographs or heteronyms are words iden-tical in spelling but different in sound and meaning,

e. g. bow (поклін) -- bow (лук), row (ряд) --row (шум, гвалт)

3) Homophones or words identical in sound but dif-ferent in spelling and meaning,

e. g. son (син) -- sun (сонце) pair (пара) -- pear (груша)

4) Homoforms are words quite different in meaning but identical in some of their grammatical forms,

e. g. bound -- past and past participle from bind--в'язати

bound (to bound) -- плигати, скакати

found -- past and past participle from find -- знаходити

Phraseology

The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words het also by a phraseological units. Ph. U. are word groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, but exist on ready-made units. They express a single notion and in the sentence are used at one part of it. American scientists call such word groups ideoms.

To make the investigation in phraseology more systematic the scientists classified them but according to different principles.

The first semantic one-was suggested by prof. Vinogradov. He continued researching of Charles Bally. Vinogradov due to this classification devided phraseologisms into three groups according to their degree of motivation:

- phr. fusions. They are great in quantity and the degree of motivation in them is very low. We cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meaning of the elements.

E.g. spick and span to speak through the nose.

- phr. units which are much larger. Here we can know the meaning of the elements, but the whole one is metaphorical.

E.g. to skate on thin ice. - phr. collocation are still larger.

Here the words are talen in their original meanings but we cannot translate the whole word by word.

E.g. to break news.

The second class-on was suggested by prof. Smirnitsky. It's based on the structural principle, and devides all the phraseologisms into one-top units and two-top units. One-top units have only one semantic centre (to give up), two top units have two semantic centres (a month of Sundays).

Next classification was done by T.V. Arnold. She devided all phraseologisms according to the past-of-speech principle.

e.g. white elephant (a noun phr.), to catch cold (a verb phr), busy as a bee (an adj), in a twinkling of a night (adv), in the course of (conj), in spite of (prep), Oh, my button (interjection).

Speaking about the formation of phr. u. it's worth saying that are formed either from free word groups or on the basis of the other phr. u.

To the primary ways we can concern metaphor, metonymy, distortion, arhaisms, transformings.

e.g. big wigg (metonymy), to burn one's finger (metaphor), odds and ends (distorlion), in a brown study (arch), like hell (transf), When the is blind (transf).

To the second ways we refer such means as conversion, contrast and many others.

Great number of Phraseol came from the other languages, from different literature resources. We can talk about the origin of them. And in this case we talk about proper native phr. sms and interlingual ones.

Ways of word building

Word - building is the main and the most productive way of enriching the vocabulary. It includes some primary and some secondary branches. To the primary we reffer affixation, composition, conversion and abreviation. To the secondary - sound and stress interchange, sound imitation, redistribution, reduplication etc.

Affixation in its turn is the largest branch of word building. It means the formation of new words by means of adding suffixes and prefixes, which help to form a new part of speech or to change the form of a word without such changing.

e.g. beauty (n) - beautiful (adj), child (n) - childhood (n).

According to different functions, origins, productivity we can talk about different classification of suffixes snd prefixes - part-of-speech, semantic, lexicogrammatical character of the slim, productivity (it's about suffixes), semantic, origin (about prefixes).

Composition is the way of word-formation when we combine two or more stems to form one word. And here we are to follow some rules.

While forming a new word we are to think about: 1) the part of speech we are forming; 2) the way we combine the elements together; 3) the structure the elements form; 4) the relations which can be between the elements; 5) about the order of the elements.

Speaking about conversion we talk about the transforming of one part of speech into another. The scientists say that the origin of this process is the levelling of grammar inflexion after the scandinavian conquest. And to the result of it there appeared a lot of homonyms which had the same roots but a little bit different meanings.

We must say that conversion is the main way of verb-formation in English, though there are other cases of it.

The largest problem in the question of conversion in the is the problem of “Stone Wall” Combination. What is this - two nouns or an adjective and a noun.

Abreviation is the process of shortening of words graphically (abbreviation is it is) or lexically (syncope, apocope, blending, clipping and so on).

The Phoneme Theory

As you probably know from the course of general linguistics, the definitions of the phoneme vary greatly.

The truly materialistic view of the phoneme was originated by the linguist - L.V. Shcherba. According to L.V. Shcherba the phoneme may be viewed as a functional, material and abstract unit.

The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds, opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words. Views of the phoneme seem to fall into four main classes.

The phoneme is material, real and objective. That means that it is realized in speech of all English - speaking people in the form of speech sounds, its allophones. The sets of speech sounds, that is the allophones belonding to the same phoneme are not identical in their articulatory content though there remains some phonetic similarity between them. All the allophones of the same phoneme have some articulatory features in common, that is all of them possess the same invariant. The articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme are called distinctive or relevant.

The so-called "functional" view regards the phoneme as the minimal sound unit by which meanings may be differentiated without much regard to actually pronounced speech sounds. According to this conception the phoneme is not a family of sounds, since in every sound only a certain number of the articulatory features, that is those which form the invariant of the phoneme, are involved in the differentiation of meanings. It is the so-called distinctive features of the sound which make up the phoneme corresponding to it. This view is shared by many foreign linguists: L.BIoomfield, R.Jakobson, M.Halle. The functional view of the phoneme gave rise to a branch of linguistics called "phonology" or "phonemics" which is concerned with relationships between contralisating sounds in a language. Its special interest lies in establishing the system of distinctive features of the language concerned. Phonetics is limited in this case with the precise description of acoustics and physiological aspects of physical sounds without any concern of their linguistic function.

A stronger form of the "functional" approach is advocated in the so-called “abstract” view of the phoneme which regards phonemes as essentially independent of the acoustic and physiological properties associated with them, that is of speech sounds.

The "physical" view regards the phoneme as a group of articulatory similar sounds without any regard to its functional and abstract aspects.

The materialistic conception of the phoneme first put forward by L.V. Shcherba may be regarded as the most suitable for the purpose of teaching. Transcription is a set of symbols representing speech sounds. Phonetics transcription is a good basis for teaching the pronunciation of a foreign language, being a powerful visual aid. To achieve good results it is necessary that the learners of English should associate each relevant difference between the phonemes with special symbols, that is each phoneme should have a special symbol. It not, the difference between the pairs of sounds may be wrongly associated with vowel length which is not-distinctive in modern English.

The English Vowel System

From phonological point of view we should consider such principle as the position of the tongue. It is characterized from two aspects, that is the horizontal and vertical movement.

According to the horizontal movement English vowels are divided into five classes (Russian scholars):

British phoneticians do not single out the classes of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels. So both [i:] and [i] vowels are classed as front, and both [u:] and [v] vowels are classed as back.

The other articulatory characteristic of vowels as to the tongue position is its vertical movement. British scholars distinguish three classes of vowels: high (or close), mid (or half-open), and low (or open) vowels.



Another feature of English vowels which is sometimes included into the principles of classification is lip rounding. Traditionally three lip position are distinguished: spread, neutral and rounded.

English vowel sounds have another property, which is traditionally termed checkness. This guality depends on the character of the articulation from a vowel to a consonant. As a result all English short vowels are checked when stressed. The degree of checkness may vary and depends on the following consonant. Before fortis voiceless consonant it is more perceptible than before a lenis voiced consonant or sonorant. All long vowels are free.

The English monophthongs are traditionally divided into varieties according to their length:

Vowel length or quantity has been the point of disagreement for a long time. When sounds are used in connected speech they cannot help being influenced by one another. Duration is one of the characteristics of a vowel wich depends on the following factors: 1) its own length, 2) the accent of the syllable in which it occurs, 3) phonetic context, 4) the position of the sound in the syllable, 5) the position of the sound in the rhythmic structure, 6) the position of the sound in a tone group, 7) the position of the sound in a phrase, 8) the position of the sound in an utterance, 9) the type of pronunciation, 10) the style of the type of pronunciation.

Summarizing we could say that phonological analysis of articulatory features of English vowels allows to consider functionally relevant the following two characteristics: a) stability of articulation b) tongue position.

Stability of articulation specifies the actual position of the articulating organ in the process of the articulation of a vowel. There are two possible varieties:a) the tongue position is stable; b) it changes. In the first case the articulated vowel is relatively pure in the second case a vowel consists of two clearly perceptible elements. There exist in addition a third variety, an intermediate case, when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak. So according to this principle the English vowels are subdivided into: monophthongs, diphthongs, diphthongoids. Summarizing its worth saying that phonologically relevant articulatory features should attract attention of a future teacher of English because they form the basis of the pronunciation system of the language. If we want to speak a foreign language in a correct way it is natural we should pay

The English Consonant System

Classification of Consonants. There are few ways of seeing the situation of classification.

According to V.A. Vassilyev primary importance should be given to the type of obstruction and the manner of production of noise. On this ground he distinguishes two large classes of consonants: a) occlusive, in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed; b) constrictive, in the production of which an incomplete obstruction is formed. [ti:] - [si] tea-sea (occlusive - constrictive) [si:d} - {si:z} seed-seas (pcclusive-constrictive)

Each of the two classes is subdivided into noise consonants and sonorants. The division is based on the factor of pravailing either noise or tone component in the auditory characteristic of a sound. In their turn noise consonants are divided into plosive consonants (or stops) and affricates.



The place of articulation is another characteristic of English consonants. The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. According to this principle the English consonants are classed into:1) labial (bilabial, labio-dental) 2) lingual (forelingual, mediolingual, backlingual) 3) glottal.

Another sound property of the English consonants is voiced-voiceless characteristic which depends on the work of the vocal chords. All voiced consonants are weak & all voiceless consonants are strong (latter-ladder). The voicing difference is important, since it is the distinctive feature of the consonants.

Another articulatory characteristic - the position of the soft palate. According to this principle consonants can be oral & nasal. Nasal occlusive sonorants [m], [n], [ h ], require the lowered position of the soft palate.

The main articulatory features: 1) type of obstruction; 2) place of obstruction & the active organ of speech; 3) force of articulation.

These articulatory features are the prime ones as they specify the essential quality of a consonant which is enough to describe it as an item of a system.

Modifications of Phonemes in Connected Speech

English Vowels in Connected Speech

The modifications of vowels in a speech chain are traced in the following directions: they are either quantitative or qualitative or both. These changes of vowels in connected speech are determined by a number of factors such as the position of the vowels in the word, accentual structure, tempo of speech, rhythm etc.

The shortening of the vowel length (the decrease) is known as a quantitative modification of vowels: 1) it occurs in unstressed position (black-board [ :]). In this case it affects both the length of the unstressed vowels & their quality; 2) the English vowels have positional length. The vowel [i:] is the longest in the final position, it is obviously shorter betore the lenis voiced consonant [d] & it is the shortest before the fortis voiceless consonant [t].

English Consonants in Connected Speech

Consonants are modified according to the place of articulation. Assimilation takes plaсe when a sound changes its character in order to become more like a heigbouring sound. The characteristic which can vary in this way is nearly always the place of articulation & the sounds concerned are commonly those which involve a complete closure at some point in the mouth that is plosives & nasals: "said that", "dry".

The manner of articulation is also changed as a result of assimilation: 1) Loss of plosion. In the sequence of two plosive consonants the former loses its plosion: glad to see you. 2) Nasal plosion. In the sequence of a plosive followed by a nasal sonorant the manner of articulation of the plosive sound & the work of the soft palate are involved, which results in the nasal character of plosion release: "sudden", "not now". 3) Lateral plosion. In the sequence of a plosive followed by the lateral sonorant [1] the noise production of the plosive stop is changed into that of the lateral stop "settle", "table".

To summarize all mentioned above, assimilation affecting the place of articulation is considered to be most typical of the English sound system & assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is most typical of the Russian speech.

Word-stress in English

The syllable or syllables which are pronounced with more prominence than the other syllables of the word are called stressed or accented. In English word stress or accent is a complex phenomenon, marked by the variations in force, pitch, quantity & quality. The dynamic & the tonic features of English word stress prevail over the others. English language processes predominantly dynamic word stress.

The nature of word stress, the interrelation of its components is still a problem which is awaiting its solution. The main drawback with any theory of stress based on production of speech gives only partial explanation of speech gives only partial explanation of the phenomenon & doesn't analyse it on the perceptive level.

Languages are also differentiated according to the placement of word stress (fixed stress & free stress). The free placement of stress is observed in the English & Russian languages, that means in one word it may fall on the first syllable, in another on the second syllable, in the third word-on the last one (beginning, ethnic; озеро, погода, молоко). The word stress in English as well as in Russian is not only free but it may be shifting -contrast-cont'rast, 'habit-hab'itual).

The functional aspect of word stress. Word stress in a language performs three functions: 1) the constitutive function (word stress constitues a word, it organized the syllables of a word into a language unist) 2) identificatory or recognitive. Correct accentuation helps the listener to make the process of communication easier. 3) distinctive, ('import-im'port).

The accentual structure of words is actually very closely interrelated with their semantic value: a 'dancing-girl танцовщица, a 'dancing 'girl - танцующая девушка, а 'blackboard - классная доска, a 'black 'board - чёрная доска. Compound verbs have two equal stresses: to 'switch 'on-to 'switch 'off as well as compound numerals ('twenty - 'three).

The typical mistakes of Russian learners in the sphere of word stress are the mispronunciation of: 1) words with the main & secondary stresses (conversational); 2) words with two equal stresses in connected speech ('up'stairs, 'reorganize); 3) words with the full vowel in the unstressed syllable ('architect). The instability of English accentual structure of words present much difficulty for Russian learners.

Segmental level of language

Units of language are divided into segmental and supersegmental.

Segmental units consist of phonemes, their form phonemes streams of different status (syllables, morphemes, words).

Super segmental unit don't exist by themselves, but are realized together with segmental units and express different modification meanings which are reflected on the streams of segmental units.

To the super segmental units belong intonations, accent, poses, patents of word order.

The segmental units of L. form a hierarchy of L. the lowest level of lingual segments is phonemic. It is formed by phonemes as the material elements of the higher level sypmants. The phoneme has no meaning. It's function is differentiation. It differentiation its morpheme and words as material bodies.

Phoneme is not a sight. Phonemes are combined into syllable, a rhythmic sygmental group of phonemes is not a sight either its has a formal significans. Phonemes are represented by letters in writing.

Since the letter has represented a status it is a sight, though different in principal from level forming signs of L.

The level located the phonemic one is the morphemic level. The morpheme is the elementary minifull part of the word. It's build up by phoneme. The morpheme expresses abstract sygnificaty meanings which are used as constituance for the formation of more concrete nominative meanings by word.

The 3-d level - is the level of words or lexemic level. The word, as different from the morpheme is a directly naming nominative unit of L. It names things and their relations since words are built up by morphemes, the shortest words consist of one explisite morpheme only (I, man, can by).

The next higher level is the level of phrases (word group) or what group or phrasemic level. Combinations of 2 or more national words belong to level forming phrase types. These combinations like separate words have a nominative function.

They represent a refrent of nomination be it a concrete thing, an action, a quality or a whole situation (a picturesque village, to start with a joke, extremely difficult, the unexpected arrivel of my girl).

Notional phrases made by of a stable type or a free type.

The stable phrases form the phraseological part of the lexicon. They are studied by the phraseological devision of lexicology.

Free phrases are built up in the prosses of speech on the existing producting models. They are studied in the lawest devision of sintacs. The grammatical description of phrases is sometimes called “smaller sintacs” in distinction to lager syntacs studied the sentence and it's textual connections.

Above the phrasemic level lies the level of sentences or proposemic level.

The piquliar character of the sentence consist in the fact that named a certain situation or situational event it expreses production that it shows the relation of denoted event to reality. It shows whether this event is real or unreal diserable or obligatory, stated as a truth or asked about. In this sence as different from the word and the phrases, the sentence is a predicative unit.

Ex. Early in July I received a letter from Jane. To receive, to receive a letter

The sentence is produce by the speaker in the process of speech as a concrete situational bound utterance. At the same time it enters the system of language by its sintacting pattern which, as all the other lingual unite types has both sintigmantic and paradigmatic characteristics.

But the sentence isn't the highest level of L. Above the proposemic level there is still another one namely the level of sentence groups or super sentantional constructions. This level can be called super proposemic. The super sentetional construction. This level is a combination of separate sentences forming a textual unity.

The sintectic process by which sentences are connected into textual unit is analyzed under the heading of accumulation.

In the typed text the super sentantional construction commonly coincides with the paragraph.

The phonemic, lecsemic and proposemic levels are most strictly and exostevly identified from the functional point of you. The function of the phoneme is differenshion. The function of the word is nominative. The function of the sentence is predicative. As different from these, morphemes are identified only as significative components of words.

Phrases presents polynominative combinations of words. And super sensational construction mark the transition from the sentence to the text.

Types of word-form derivation

There are 2 main types of word form derivation:

1) Those limited to change in the body of the word without help axulary words (sensetic types).

2) Those enplane the use of axulary (analytical).

Besides there are a few special cases of different forms of a word been derived from all together different stamps.

a) Senstic types The number of morphemes used for deriving word forms in modern English is very small. Much smaller then in Latin, German, Ukrainian or Russian.

They may be annumerated in a very short space. There ia the ending -s(-es) with 3 variants of pronunciation used to form the plural of the noun. And the ending -en, (-ren) used for the same propers in one or two words each (oxen, children).

There is the ending -is with the same 3 variants of pronunciation as for the plural: ending used to form what is a generaly term case of nouns.

For adjectives there are the endings: -er, -est for the degress of comparatives.

For verbs the number of morphemes used to derived their forms is slitly greater. There is the ending -s(-es) for the 3-d person singular Pr. Ind. With the same 3 v. of pronouns.

The ending -d(-ed) for the Past Tense of certain verbs with the 3 v. of pronouns.

The ending -d(-ed) for the Participle ІІ of certain verbs.

The ending -ing for the Participle І and for the Gerund.

The total number of morphemes used to derive forms of words is 10 or so. It is mush less then the number found in L. of a mainly sensetical structure.

b) sound alternations (чредование гласных). By sound alternation are can understand a way of expression grammatical categories wich consist in changing a sound inside the root. These method apperes in modern English in nouns then the root vowel [ ] of a singular form man is changed into [e] to form the plural form -men or similarly. The root vowel on of mouth is changed into -i in mice. These method is much more used in verb such as write-wrote-written; meet-met-met. On the whole vowel altonation does play some part among the means of expressing the grammatical categories.

c) analytical (вспомаг. глаголы) Analytical types consists in using a word to express some grammatical category of another word.

The verbs: have, be, do - have no lexical meanings of their own in these cases. The lexical meanen of the formations presides in the Participle or Infinitive following the verb: have, be, do.

Some analytical types has been expressed about the formation shall invite and will invite. There is a view that shall/will have a lexical meanings: consides shall/will as verbs serving the form the Future Tence of other verbs. Thus have, be,do,shall,will are what we called axulary verbs. As such they constitute to typical feature of the analytical structure of modern English. While the existans of analytical forms of the Eng. verb can't be destitute.

The existents of some forms in adjectives and adverbs is not nowadays universally recognized. The question whether such formations as more vived the most vived or more vivedly most vivedly are not analitical forms of degress of comparatives.

If these formations are recognized as analytical forms of degrees of compression the words more/most have to be numbered among the analytical means of morphology.

d) suplative formation Besides the sensetical and analytical means of building word in modern Eng. There is another way of building them which stands quite a part and is found in a very limited.

By a sypletive formation one can mean building a form of a word from an alltogether different steam (the verb go with its past Tence went; the personal pronoun I with it's objective case form me).

In the morphological system of modern Eng. suplative formation are very insignificant elements but they consem a few very widly used words among adjectives, pronouns and verbs.

The function and the types of phrases

The functions of the phrase in the sentence:

- the phrases which perform the function of 1 or more parts of the sentence

ex. Predicate and object; predicate and adverbial modifier

- the phrases which do not perform any such function but whose function is equivalent to the function of a preposition or a conjunction and which are in fact equivalent

ex. In front of; in according with; with reference to; as soon as

The former of these 2 classes includes the majority of English phrases but the letter is no less important from a general point of you.

Types of phrases

B. Ilish distingishies the following types of phrases:

a) noun+noun. It is the most usual type of phrase in modern Eng. This type in the common case may be used to denote one idea as modified by another (speech sound, army unit, London bridge).

b) adjective+noun is used to expressed all possible kinds of things with their properties (a beautiful girl)

c) verb+noun may correspond to 2 different types of relations between an action and a thing. In the wast majority cases the noun denotes an object of the action expressed by the verb (to play the piano, to read a book)

d) verb+adjective (to speak loudly, to work hard)

e) adverb+adjective (rather difficult, very interesting)

f) adverb+adverb (very carefully, pretty easily)

g) noun+preposition+noun (a pen on the table, a girl in the room)

h) preposition+noun+preposition (in front of, in accord with)

i) adjective+preposition+noun (full of life, busy with music)

j) verb+preposition+noun (to go to school, to be in town)

k) noun+verb an important question erises conserning this pattern in linguistic theory, different opinions, have been put forward on this point (one view is that the phrase type)

Classification of sentences

The sentence is a communicative unit. There are 4 the primal classification of sentences must be based on the communicative principle in formulated in traditional grammar as the purpose of communication. In accord with the purpose of communication 3 sentence types have been recognized in linguistic traditions 1) the declarative 2) the imperative 3) the interrogative.

The declarative s. stays effect in a formation or negative form. In declarative s. the subject persists their predicate. It's generally pronounced with a foling intonation. The imperative s. serves to make a person to do smt. So it expresses a regues, an invertation an interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means of inversion. There are 4 kinds of questions: - general (Do you like art?) - special (Where do you live?) - alternative (Do you live in village or in town?) - disjunctive (You speak Eng, don't you?)

According to structure linguists divide sentences into the simple, the composite, the complex, the compound.

The simple s. as different from the simple s. is formed by 2 or more predicative lines being a poly predicative construction it expresses a complicated act of thought.

Composite s. can be devided into complex and compound s. is a poly predicative constr. built up on is a composite s. built up on the principle of the principle of subordination coordination

Subcategorization of part of speech

Each part of speech after it's identification is further divides into subgroups. These subversion is sometimes called subcategorization of parts of speech.

Thus nouns are subcategorizated into: a) proper (имя собств.), common (общее) b) animate (живой) inanimate (неживой) c) countable, uncountable (book-books, news, water) d) concrete, abstract (stone, tree, house, love).

Verbs are subcategorizated into: a) fullypredicative (to write, to work); partlypredicative (will, shall) b) transitive (take, speak,listen), intrensetive (stay, run) c) actional (write, play, read), statel (sleep, dream, rest) d) factive (begin, build), avaluative (like, love, hate)

Adjectives are subcategorizated: a) qualitative; relatative (wooden, daily) b) of constant (feature, healthy, joyfull), temperant (well, ill, glad) c) factive (tall, heavy, smooth); avaluative (kind, brave, wise).

The noun is the word expressing substance in the widen sence of the word. In the concern of substance we include not only names of living beens (boys, girls) and lifing things (table) but also names of abstract notions.