Soccer

SOCCER

INTRODUCTION

It is the game that is played in nearly all countries. A team is composed of a goalkeeper, two backs,three half-backs and five forwards. There is another game called rugby football, so called because it originated at rugby, a well known English public school. In this game players may carry the ball. There is also an American football, different from the other two. The captain of the team is usually the oldest or best player. Walking and swimming are the two most popular sporting activities, being most equally undertaken by men and women.

Snooker(billiards), pool and darts are the next most popular sports among men. Aerobics ( keep-fit exercises) and yoga, squash and cycling are among the sports where participation has been increasing in recent years. Such kinds of sport as chess, archery, rowing, balls are very popular not only among young people and students but also among older men. Scottish Highland Games, at which sports ( including tossing the caber, putting the weight and throwing the hammer), dancing and piping competitions take place, attract large numbers of spectators all over the world.

I. This is Soccer!

There is documentary evidence that a a game or skill building exercise, involving kicking a ball into a small net, was used by the Chinese military during the Han Dynasty - around the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC. Earlier evidence - of a field marked out to play a ball-kicking game has been found at Kyoto, in Japan. Both the Greeks and ancient Romans played a soccer-type game which resembled modern soccer - although in this early version, teams could consist of up to 27 players! It is impossible to say accurately where and when soccer started - but it is reasonable to assume that some type of ball game - from which the organised sport we know today developed - has been played somewhere on the planet for over 3000 years. Britain is the undisputed birthplace of modern soccer/association football.

Scotland and England being co-founders of the organised game. Football - as soccer is called in Britain - was a popular sport of the masses from the 8th century onwards. But the game at that time was a war game! There is a story which places the first football game in the east of England - where the locals played 'football' with the severed head of a Danish Prince they had defeated in battle! In medieval times, towns and villages played against rival towns and villages - and kicking, punching, biting and gouging were allowed.

The object of the game was to move the ball to an agreed spot which had been marked out before play commenced. Hundreds of people took part and games could last all day. So violent did these matches become that many attempts were made by the authorities to ban soccer. In England, King Edward III passed laws in 1331 to try and suppress football. In Scotland, King James 1, in 1424, proclaimed in Parliament, "That na man play at the Fute-ball" (No man shall play football/soccer). Good Queen Bess, Queen Elizabeth 1 of England, had a law passed which provided for soccer players to be " jailed for a week, and obliged to do penance in church." But no law could stop the game in Britain. It was too popular. In 1815, the famous English School, Eton College, established a set of rules which other schools, colleges and Universities began to use.

Later, these were standardised and a version, known as the Cambridge Rules, was adopted by most of England's Universities and Colleges in 1848. But now, football was divided into two separate camps. Some colleges and schools preferred to follow rules drawn up by Rugby School - rules which permitted tripping, shin-kicking and carrying the ball - all forbidden by the Cambridge rules.

On 26 October 1863, eleven London clubs and schools sent their representatives to a meeting in the Freemason's Tavern to establish a single set of fundamental rules to govern the matches played amongst them. This meeting created The Football Association. The supporters of the Rugby School rules walked out - and On 8 December 1863, Association Football and Rugby Football finally split. In 1869 The Football Association included in their rules a provision which forbade any handling of the ball - so establishing the foundation on which the modern game stands.

British Soccer History

In Britain during the 8th century, soccer was created, not as a recreational sport, but as a war game. One of the stories of the original roots of the sport comes from when a Danish Prince was beheaded, and his head was used as a ball and was kicked around. Ever since this 'legendary' tale, villages and other communities would play a game where they would have to kick a ball to a specific goal. It was a violent game, where injury and death were not uncommon, but it was popular nevertheless.

In fact, it was so violent, that in 1331, King Edward the III passed laws to try to stop the playing of the game. It did not work, however, and the sport continued on. There are even stories of soccer games that involved hundreds upon hundreds of players. In these games, there were many deaths, some resulting in the hundreds. It wasn't until 1815 when Eton College set up a series of rules for the game that it became less violent and more of a true sport.

At this time, other colleges and universities took up the banner and began to play under similar rules. Later, the rules were evaluated and judged, and the Cambridge rules were created as a result in 1848. In the Cambridge rules, shin-kicking, carrying the ball and tripping were all forbidden. Rugby rules allowed these aspects, and the two varieties of soccer, or football, split to form their own followings. On October 26, 1863, London schools and sports club sent representatives to the Freemason's Tavern, where the Football Association was formed. Rugby supporters left this association to form the Rugby Association. This is where the birth of modern soccer began. In 1969, the Football Association finalized the modern game of soccer by forbidding the use of hands in the game.

The term "Soccer" was coined when someone was asked if he was a Rugger, which is a Rugby player. The -er signified that the person participated in a a particular sport. The individual, Charles Wreford Brown, replied with "Soccer!", taking the phrase from Association, SOC, and adding the -er. The term stuck. While British individuals still call the game Football, Americans and other countries call it Soccer, especially if they have heavy support in American Football present. Ever since the foundation of the Association, "Football" has risen in popularity, becoming one of the best love games in the history of Earth. Now, hundreds of thousands play the sport, although it lacks the initial violence present at its creation.

The History of Soccer Shoes

Although player's costumes have changed unrecognisably since early days of the game (Morris,1981), according to McDowell (1994), football boots have undergone surprisingly few design changes in the last seventy years. The evolution of boot development has been a conflict between protection from the climate and injury; against the freedom of limb movement to perform better. Improved fitness of players combined with greater glittering prizes has undoubtedly had a positive spin on boot development but these changes surprisingly appear to be stylistic as the football codes have become more glamorous rather than forged by any desire to play better or decrease the rates of injury. As if by irony it appears from the published literature there have been more injuries caused by boot innovations than appear to be resolved by new designs. This includes the adaptation and incorporation of new synthetic polymers. The incidence of football related injuries are now the focus of much concern.

Paradoxically safety changes to soccer footwear are less likely to come from the professionals themselves, as boot sponsorship has become a major source of income. Instead the genuine concern of Soccer Mums, especially in North America, where the game has become so popular with young children, will forge greater safety awareness likely to change the modern game and soccer boot forever. As would appear from the dearth of literature, the history of soccer boots has been a much-neglected subject. In the interests of information exchange and to correspond with the World's Greatest Sporting Event, the FIFA World Cup ^TM 2002, the author attempts to address this void by compiling the following history. The absence of written details about the boots worn by the early players has meant much of the evidence was derived from photographic materials which only presents, one-dimensional data.

Association Rules

Popularity in organised sports followed changes to conditions of employment condition in the UK. The working class had more recreation time and the search for leisurable pastimes was thought to account for the meteoric rise in organised sport. In 1862, Notts County became the first professional team.

The oldest soccer club in the world started by an impromptu kick abouts by a group of young men of the professional class. In 1867 Queens Park became the first Scottish Club.

At first the Scots' game was associated with delicate ball control and short passing known as the combination game. The English preferred individual players who could dribble passed their opposition. As the early years passed regional variations began to arise and some players perfected the screw shot or bending the ball in flight.

These strategies necessitated precise control of the ball the combination of physical ability and boot became critical if the ball was to be mastered. It took more than a decade after the rules of the game were formulated for the artisan classes to become interested in playing association football. Rugby was by far the more popular game with the cloth cap fraternity but gradually this was to change.

The phenomenon of the newly perfected electrical illumination also caught the imagination and football promoters help floodlight matches. The standard of play improved with the establishment of the English Football League (1888). Organised competition with spectators meant a greater emphasis on entertainment and the game began to speed up.

The need to free up movement in the players meant restrictive clothing needed to be modified or go. Costumes became gradually lighter in weight and the cumbersome leg pads or shinguards were reduced in size and tucked inside the socks. The only exception to this was boots, which became more robust and heavier. At first the Football Association was against professionalism but eventually 1885 it had to accept the inevitable and sanction professionalism. Transfer of professional players meant a marriage of football styles, which was to lead to formation play, which engaged the crowds.

Inetrnational Football

The first international game was between Scotland v England (1872). Inclement weather caused the first fixture to be cancelled but a rescheduled game took place on November 30th 1872.

The meeting of the Auld Enemy took place at the West of Scotland, Cricket Ground in Patrick, Glasgow. Newspaper reports described the players wearing heavy boots with thick woollen socks. Contemporary adverts indicate the boots were made from heavy calf leather and worn above the ankle similar to engineer's boots. Metal studs on the sole gave greater traction but the design patterns were serendipitous. The boot's toecaps were reinforced and fluted in shape.

Two years later, shin guards were worn for the first time and these were adapted from cricket. The pads were worn against the lower leg and strapped to the top of the stockings but left to hang outside. Movement was severely restricted but the game then was played in a more leisurely manner. Physical restriction prevented athleticism in the manner common to the modern game. Official international matches started on the continent at the beginning of the twentieth century.

The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in 1904 and the first tournament took place in London as part of the 1908 Olympics. The new sport was regarded somewhat suspiciously and considered, by many, as an exhibition rather than competition. Between 1909 and 1913 many non-European countries joined forces with FIFA. Despite disruption caused by the First World War, FIFA continued to promote international soccer competitions through the Olympic movement until 1930 when the first World Cup was help in Montevideo, Uruguay. The 1932 World Cup final between Italy and Czechoslovakia was broadcast on the radio for the first time. This brought millions of armchair fans to the international game.

Development of Soccer Boots

As the game developed then the football boot emerged as an essential part of the sport. Contemporary pictures of amateur teams (circa 1870) display a mixed bunch of rugged workboots. Not until the last decade of the century do teams appear to wear the same boots. Not surprisingly there were no regulation governing boots other than they must no wear anything that may endanger their opponents. Rule 13#: No player shall be allowed to wear projecting nails, iron plates, or gutta percha on the soles or heels of his boots.

Newspaper reports of early games indicatedthe weather in the winter of 1870/71 was severe and extreme. Heavy rain accompanied by high winds with severe frosts and snow did not deter the new game from being played. Flooding frequently arose followed by an unusual hot summer which pioneering players took in their stride. Clothing was restrictive and worn for protection from the elements as much as decency.

Hence early British football was very slow and not yet a spectators' spectacle. Neither were the general public was not actively encouraged to attend as the game was considered more for participants. Despite this the popularity of the game grew and clubs began to spring up across the UK.

Early photographs are testament to the availability of stout footwear (Denvir, 1979). Players wore long laced boots, similar to engineer's boots but with a strengthened toecap in iron hard leather. In 1880 boots began to incorporate a strap, narrow on the inside of the foot, which crossed over the bottom two or three rows of eyelet's, winding to the outside of the foot. This gave greater protection to the toes as players used the dorsum of the foot to kick.

Today, players use the side of their foot to strike the ball, then the toe was used to catch the ball and give it lift. To increase ground grip the soles incorporated metal tacks but Rule 13 prevented these in official matches. They were replaced form 1890 with new plugs made from layers of leather, they idea came form hockey boots. Studs (sometimes referred to as cleats) were positioned to avoid isolated pressure points and unnecessary irritation of the foot. In the area of the hindfoot they were located towards the outside of the sole to avoid buckling. The common formation was six studs, two distal and proximal to the metatarsal heads and two on the posterior aspect of the heel.

By 1900 the soccer boot was a recognisable entity and not just modified footwear adopted from other sports. The Shurekik Boota was made from russet calf with fluted toecap and sold in 1901 for a cost 8/6d ($1.26A). To complete leg protection shin guards cost between 1/6d (22c Aus) and 2/11d (45c Aus); and football hose varied between 1/11d (30c Aus) and 4/11d (75c Aus). Professional players received 2/6 (37c. Aus) per game and some were paid special bonuses in addition depending on their skill. The sum varied according to the size of the crowd but even the best players seldom got bonuses was over 2/11 (45c Aus). Boots cost three times that amount.

According to Morris, the 'baggy shorts and heavy boots" style remained the dominant costume theme, right up to the Second World War. Most authorities agree changes to football boots took place after the war when there was a dramatic increase in international fixtures. This was made possible by improved air travel and transcontinental travel brought soccer players from the colder climes of Europe into contact with their counter parts in the Mediterranean and South America. Warmer climates meant players wore less and had flexible boots more suited to the climate.

The Latin game was played faster and provided opportunity for athleticism rarely seen in the traditional European game. Radio broadcasts then televised sport meant more spectators could appreciate the novel Latin styles and appreciation of their skills caused a revolution in play and clothing. Boots became sports shoes allowing players to become athletes capable of leaps and volleys never before seen. The complete focus for design of the soccer boot was aimed at kicking and controlling the ball on the ground. (Lees & Nola,1998). Some might argue this has been at the expense of preventing injury. As the ankle boot lowered to become a soccer shoe alternative methods of providing ankle stability were necessary (Lees and Nolan, 1998).

Later with the introduction of artificial playing surfaces the need for long studs became redundant. Deep penetration was neither good for the surface nor advantageous to the players, with many poor performances and injuries reported.

At the same time the popularity of indoor soccer necessitated a change in boot design. The new challenges meant boot designers needed to be cognisant of giving the player greatest stability as their leg, anchored to the floor as well as combining this with the need to cope with the rigours of sliding on the floor. The new soccer shoe had bristle (or cleat) soles and gradually these have been incorporated into the traditional soccer boot design.

Marketing rhetoric may infer a revolution in recent years but the trend has been a steady evolution in design and materials as manufacturers have sought to improve safety and performance. Improvements in the last decade have covered a broad range of design changes from the shape of the shoe to new lacing systems (Martin, 1997). As women№s soccer gains greater popularity, companies like Adidas now carry different soccer shoes, developed on the shape and function of the female foot. To improve comfort, midsole cushioning now incorporates viscoelastic polymers. These are light in weight extremely resilient and hardwearing materials which incorporate fluids and gas within a solid mass. Not of this world these synthetics have come from the aerospace industry. These in turn displaced the revolutionary polyurethane which were originally used instead of natural rubber foams and leather. Changes from split sole shoe design have given greater support through the midfoot without loosing the need for shoe flexibility in accerlerated movements Changes in lacing and eyelet mechanisms make the hitting surfaces flatter against the foot. This has two benefits i.e. pressure is distributed across the top of the foot and the flatter surface helps the player control the ball. Side eyelet fixation is another design innovation considered to contribute to the above.