Testimonial in (new) media

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Testimonial in (new) media

Justyna Majchrowska, Rzeszow University

Відгуки в (нових) медіа

Юстина Майхровська, Жешувський університет

Предметом цього дослідження є відгук, що швидко розвивається як тренд (нових) ЗМІ в рамках кількісно-якісного лінгвістичного аналізу. Окрім мовностилістичних переконливих засобів, також увага приділялася структурі цього жанру. У проведеному аналізі використано основні лексикографічні визначення відгуку і в зарубіжній, і в вітчизняній літературі. Також розрізняємо відгуки від відправників та від одержувачів з посиланням на авторитет та доведення соціальної справедливості, які функціонують в обох групах, але з різною силою.

Висновок стосується здебільшого відгуків від одержувачів, які (здавалося б?) є достовірнішими та надійнішими думками щодо оцінки товару. Дослідження включає двісті п'ятнадцять відгуків за період з 2018 по 2020 рік, які з'явились під товаром бренду Pandora. В рамках аналізу ми звернули увагу на тендерну категорію, рейтинг (кількість зірочок), а також на оціночну лексику, тобто застосування прикметників. Було помічено, що негативних відгуків кількісно, у рази, менше, ніж позитивних, що суперечить спостереженням спеціалістів з маркетингу та реклами, які стверджують, що незадоволений клієнт частіше висловлює свою думку.

Відгуки - один із елементів позитивного брендування та підтвердження того, що товар існує і має певну якість. За браком часу, кожен із нас хоче зробити вибір якомога швидше. Завдяки доступу до Інтернету знайти потрібну інформацію дуже просто. Але потрібно зважати на її джерело та достовірність. Відгуки на сайтах Інтернет-магазинів з потрібними товарами - найшвидший спосіб отримати інформацію про якість товару, магазину, послуги. Предметом відгуку у цьому випадку є товар - матеріальний товар, - але аналогічні правила оцінювання застосовуються і до засобів масової інформації та журналістської діяльності.

Ключові слова: переконання, (нові) медіа, відгуки, реклама, маркетинг, інтернет.

The linguistic research of (the new) media so far has mainly focused on the analysis of content from broadcasters - people publishing on the Internet in order to convince the potential recipients to enter the website, read articles, explore the website as well as return after leaving it - in exchange for the material or financial benefit. Several years of observation of a variety of text types existing in the media shows that not only texts from broadcasters make it possible to notice and maintain this attention of recipients. Nowadays, similarly as in marketing and advertising, in the media (but not only there) the essential and productive content comes from the recipient.

The subject of this quantitative and qualitative linguistic analysis is the title testimonial as a rapidly growing persuasive (promotional) trend in (new) media and a response to the challenges of the modern society.

Keywords: persuasion, (new) media, testimonial, advertising, marketing.

(New) media. The graphic form used results from the fact that this concept has been noticeably outdated and that the existing meaning has been transferred/added to the definition of the term media. The concept of new media from The Dictionary of Media Terminology ed. by Walery Pisarek from 2006 «is related to the dissemination of computer techniques and personal computers as well as the technology of recoding all analog transmission and messages into digital ones, which took place in the 1980s. The spread of the new media is also related to the creation of a global network - the internet» Pisarek, W. (red.) (2006), Slownik terminologii medialnej, Universitas, Krakow, pp. 250.. Since that time, many decades have passed, in which every year some changes in the broadly understood communication technology and phenomena were noticeable, hence the term new media and media are treated interchangeably in the following part of this work in the meaning of: «mass media: press, radio, television, internet». Because of editorial limitations, it is impossible to present the similarities and differences of all media with regard to the adopted perspective, hence these considerations only cover the content available on the internet.

The title testimonial is a concept derived from English and means «a letter of recommendation, a certificate (of recognition), references» or e.g.: «a formal written statement about the qualities of a product or service» or «proof that something exists or is true». Brett A.S. Martin, Daniel Wentzel and Torsen Tomczak claim that «testimonials are a popular advertising tactic». Aforementioned authors add that this trend is - despite the daily changes in marketing communication - currently considered the best selling tool. In Poland this phenomenon also appeared mainly due to advertising and/or marketing to define «streng- htening the advertising message through inviting well-known and respected people and letting them comment on the advertised brand in the commercials». This type of behaviour is an example of the use of the principle - in the nomenclature of Robert Cialdini Cialdini R., (2000), Wywieranie wplywu na ludzi. Teoria i praktyka, Gdanskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdansk, pp. 276. - both authority and social proof of rightness.

Already from childhood, the authority and its importance are understandable to a man who is shown certain rules from the very beginning - rights and obligations or respect for (elderly) people. Initially, the parents, family or a close circle of people accompanying the upbringing (educators, teachers) have the greatest influence on shaping the character and values of a young person. With age, authorities change/may change which depends on the choices made at each stage of life. In adulthood, an employer, a doctor, a politician replaces/may replace the position of i.a. parents [see 3]. It should come as no surprise that in a face of a deeply rooted sense of obligation to submit to authorities and inability to oppose their demands Ibid., a man shows a maximal obedience to authorities and sometimes critically believes in their assertions.

According to Robert Cialdini, relying on the authority proves obedience to others, but it also allows to make a decision automatically and without reflection - especially nowadays in the era of electronic media, even by clicking without even having to think - «providing a convenient shortcut when choosing a behavior» Ibid.. On the one hand, this mechanism is a way of controlling and determining the rules of political, economic, media, social and family behavior. A subordinate person who trusts their own authority loses objectivity and sometimes a freedom of making decisions or does not recognize the opportunity of expressing their own opinion at all. Each of their actions that is against the will of authority builds a sense of making the wrong decision in them. The affects that wake up each time change - with time - into the conviction that it is not worth acting against the will of the authority, that - seemingly - it will save time and eliminate the possibility of a wrong decision-making and testifies to loyalty and this ennobles the person in the eyes of the authority. These observations result from reading the book written by Robert Cialdini, in which the author presents the cases of extreme behavior of mentally healthy people who, in order to fulfil the authority's will (i.a. doctor's, high-ranking military authority's) were not able to be faithful to the professed values or strictly fulfilled their commands that raised further doubts. This proves the enormous potential of authority as a persuasive mechanism [see 3]. Cialdini even describes it as a `mechanical reaction' that replaces thinking Ibid..

Another example of «automatic responding based on only partial evidence» is the principle of social proof of equity. This means, for example, choosing the number of opinions rather than their quality» Ibid..

Nowadays - in the face of quick obsolescence of the methods of convincing consumers to a specific product - in the professional literature the term refers not only to the statements of famous people, but also to all (positive) opinions about the product. It can be treated as a form common to the term concerning third texts [see 8], but testimonials are considered to be speech genres/statements written at the request of the person concerned or usually being a positive message about a person, event, product or other type of human activity. Testimonials on the Internet (but not only) are:

• content from broadcasters (rarely negative Negation may be the one of persuasive techniques here., neutral or often positively marked texts, in which the argument of authority was used, e.g. journalistic articles, news, etc., but also advertisements with the participation of a famous person);

• content from recipients (neutral, positive or negative opinions, reviews, comments that implement the principle of social proof of rightness, rarely authority).

The material basis for this quantitative and qualitative analysis consists of two hundred and fifteen comments, which - in the examined online store - are defined as product opinions or reviews See: [22].. Their publication took place in 2018-2020. The headline testimonials - in the sense of opinions, testimonials, statements about the quality of the product - have been placed by the audience-witnesses acquainted with the product, under the Pandora Reflexions bracelet of the Copenhagen brand Pandora See: [21]., which has been an example of a dynamically developing global company for 38 years All examples are provided in their original form.. In persuading to buy, brand owners use their authority in communicating to recipients seasonally. In the conducted analysis, the social proof of validity and quality Deszczynski B. (2005), „Zarzqdzanie relacjami z klientami (CRM) w przedsiqbiorstwie - istota strategii i uwarunkowania jej wdrazania”, Zeszyty Naukowe. Akademia Ekonomiczna w Poznaniu, nr 65, p. 388-399. is confirmed by the number of comments added for a given product. Consumers on their own initiative (or at the request of the company) describe their experience, possible problems and their solutions, with reference to a specific product. Such testimonials - using the language of benefits [see i.a. 4] - are a profitable, because free, form of advertising.

Testimonials in an online Pandora store are posted below the product, after the user gets logged into the website, by putting a login, a header and a short comment and selecting a mark on a scale (in the form of stars) from one to five, where the highest number means a very good quality of a product/service. The customers in the comments showing one, two or three stars mention the minuses of the bracelet, and those putting comments with four or five stars, describe features and advantages of the product as well as the benefits of buying it in accordance with the principle of direct PAB sale - price, advantage, benefit [see e.g. 20].

The exemplary material includes two hundred and fifteen testimonials, out of which one star was given to eleven comments, two - two, three - three, four - thirteen and five - a hundred and six items. Six of the added testimonials were written by men introducing themselves with nicknames as an informative and credibility function, e.g. Marek, Andrzej, Patryk, Pawel, Tanek, Pawelek, Adi2309. Other testimonials are written by women. Here are the chosen nicknames: Hania, graza80, Anonim, Monika, doda75, Godzinka, Aleksandra, Elzbieta, Alicja, Weronika, Joanna, Jolal, Ania Sole, Lola, Pysia, Em, Kasia, Andzia, Domiszka etc. The length of individual opinions ranges from one word - Super; Recommended; Love; Okay through several words - Very pretty [2 words]; lovely and very comfortable [4 words]; to a longer comments. Here is an example of one of the longest testimonials, in which the header was used:

Pretty, aesthetic

Nice bracelet, I chose the size as instructed by the size table. In my opinion it is rather loose but after putting charms it will look better. Sadly, a purchase of a bracelet means a purchase of a special bracelet opener which is not cheap. You cannot open it without that tool. No chance for the nails (wasted) [P P - Pandora. The designation is used for longer fragments of the analyzed genres.] - 58 words By using the qualitative analysis, it was found that the users-consumers adding testimonials to the website communicate with a (written) spoken version of common general language Ozфg, K. (2014), «Ustna odmiana jзzyka ogфlnego», Wspфlczesny jзzyk polski, red. J. Bartminskiego, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Sklodowskiej, Lublin, p. 85-98.. This fact is evidenced by the use of such linguistic means as Zdunkiewicz-Jedynak, D. (2008), Wyklady ze stylistyki, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 220.:

1. repetition: Very poor clasp. Very nice bracelet but the clasp leaves much to be desired. It is very hard to unbuckle [...];

2. anacoluthe: [.] Even with just one clip, it looks stunning [...];

3. unfinished statements: As of today, I was the happy owner of that bracelet... [...];

4. auto-correction: Good purchase, an elegant bracelet. Worth recommending. The so- called Charms clasps look beautiful on it.

5. Syntactic pipeline: the bracelet met my expectations it is beautiful instant delivery;

6. sentence equivalents: A great gift. The gifted very pleased. Good promotion. Worth recommending;

7. double predicates: [.] the size according to the table and tips from the website turned out to have been to small - I barely buckled it [...];

8. the word order subjugated communication intention: I really like this bracelet [...]; The bracelet has a great clasp. The bracelet is beautiful as it is. It is so light you cannot feel it on your hand.

Jacek Warchala, a researcher of colloquiality in language, points out that colloquiality occurs both in advertising and in the media Warchala, J. (2003), Kategoria potocznosci w jзzyku, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Slqskiego, Katowice, pp. 288., and its aim is to minimize the distance between the recipient-consumer (product owner) and the recipient-consumer (interested in purchasing).

The users-consumers evaluate a product by using - both negatively and positively marked - lexis of the colloquial style. The unit of analysis are mainly words for which a sentence or the whole statement is a context. «A certain part of the lexemes occurring in various varieties of Polish is characterized by the fact that, apart from the lexical meaning and lexical connotations, it also contains additional information about the emotional relationship of the sender to what they are talking about or conveys the subjective, emotional attitude of the speaker (writer) to the world at all. This is usually accompanied by the sender's judgment. Such lexemes contain the component «I like//I don't like» [...]. Separating expression from evaluation is sometimes difficult in specific cases, which is why people usually talk more generally - about expressive-evaluating words with the distinction of negative «I think it is wrong» and positive «I think it is good» Markowski, A. (2012), Wyklady z leksykologii, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 200..

In the analyzed exemplary material, the negative opinion is exposed in testimonials in relation to the quality of the product, hence the special meaning of an adjective understood as a part of speech that defines a noun and names properties, for example, of people, objects or phenomena Laskowski R., 1999, „Przymiotnik”, Encyklopedia jзzykoznawstwa ogфlnego, red. K. Polanski, Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolinskich, Wroclaw, pp. 475. (Drabik, I., Sobol, E. (oprac.) (2004), Slownik poprawnej polszczyzny PWN, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 116).. Here are examples of negative opinions about a bracelet or its elements - charms, clasps, quality, and the procedures accompanying its purchase:

• poor «a defect of something» Drabik, I., Sobol, E., Kubiak-Sokфl, A., Wisniakowska, L. (oprac.) (1996), Slownik jзzyka polskiego PWN, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 1360., (4 In parentheses there is information about the number of occurrences of a given lexeme in the example material.), in the example: A bracelet - great, clasps - poor [...]; Very poor quality [...]; The bracelet of a poor quality! [...]; Unfortunately, bracelets and charms have very poor clasps;

• bad «lousy, miserable, wicked» Drabik, I., Sobol, E., Kubiak-Sokфl, A., Wisniakowska, L. (oprac.) (1996), Slownik jзzyka polskiego PWN, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 1360., (2): it had a very bad clasp, it unbuckled itself and when I put it on the second time, I lost the bracelet together with the clip [...]; Bad product, very bad quality [...];

• wrong «improper from the point of view of someone's needs or expectations» Ibid., (2): Very wrong clasp; [.] The only disadvantage is a bit inconvenient way of replacing the bracelet in case of wrong size selection;

• scratched «to make scratched, flaws» Ibid., (1): Bracelet came scratched. A long waiting time for a refund;

Positively marked adjectives constitute a larger group. Among the numerous examples, the following lexemes are most frequently used:

• beautiful «unique in terms of quality or size» Ibid., (90): A beautiful bracelet [...]; A beautiful product, a great gift.; including derivatives such as: more beautiful (21), the most beautiful (1): the bracelet is very beautiful [...]; Bracelet is the most beautiful [...];

• elegant «dressing up, behaving in a smart manner» Ibid., (34): [...] The bracelet is elegant and goes well with everything; [.] It is totally different from the previous Pandoras, very elegant;

• super in adjective use «extraordinary, unusual» Drabik, I., Sobol, E., Kubiak-Sokфl, A., Wisniakowska, L. (oprac.) (1996), Slownik jзzyka polskiego PWN, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 1360., (28): A super bracelet [...]; Super present [...]; Super idea for a present [...]; A bracelet has a super clasp [...]; Super product [...]; It has a super set of features [...]; Super purchase! [.] [P];

• pretty «very nice, the one that you like very much» Ibid., (26): Pretty, I wear it every day [...]; The bracelet is pretty itself [.] [P];

• delicate «characterized by a fragile structure» Ibid., (24): I have had the bracelet for a month and I am delighted - it is delicate and practically imperceptible on my hand [***] [P];

• perfect «unreal, magnifical, sublime» Ibid., (13): Perfect for every occasion, every day, for work, going out, to the theatre [P];

• great «perfect, exquisite, fine» Ibid., (11): Great bracelet full of charm and shine Great ;) [***];

• wonderful «amazingly beautiful» Ibid., (9): [.] I bought 2 for the price of 1 !! That was a very good purchase !! It is wonderful !; [.] The bracelet is simply wonderful, delicate and subtle [...];

• nice «good, pretty» Ibid., (8): The bracelet is nice you can add accessories. I recommend...;

• subtle «characterized by delicacy, non-massive structure and shap» Ibid., (7): it is really subtle, my daughter is delighted. I recommend;

• ideal «1. of the highest quality, having all the advantages; 2. complete, absolute» Ibid., (6): [.] Ideal for special occasions;

• classical «traditional» Ibid., (5): [.] Simple, classical and therefore beautiful. for every day and for holiday;

• effective «attracting attention with its originality and beauty» Ibid., (5): A beautiful brace - let effective and elegant. I recommend to the women in all ages.

Among the abundant qualitative modifiers that exemplify neo-semantization and the influence of linguistic fashion, the following adjectives are less frequent: unique «special in some respect» Ibid., (2), divine «wonderful, marvelous, charming» Ibid., (2), graceful «nicely, harmoniously built» Ibid., (2), dazzling «very impressive, inspiring» Ibid., (2), sensual «relating to the senses» Ibid., (1), minimalist from minimalism «minimizing requirements, needs, aspirations» Ibid., (1). Here are some examples in context:

Beautiful, subtle, unique, delicate, perfect decoration for my wrist [P];

Hm What can I write IDEAL, DAZZLING, DIVINE. [P];

Beautiful, minimalist, ideal complement to any outfit [P];

Beautiful, classic bracelet. It looks lovely on the hand. [P];

[...] unfortunately I had to replace it with a bigger one and I am still waiting, a smaller size was suggested however it turned out to be too small but still delicate and sensual [P];

The adjectives from the analyzed testimonials, similarly to advertising, as highlighted by Jerzy Bralczyk: «obviously not always directly refer to the advertised products. The mere use of them in an advertising message should work [...]. The important thing here is not so much the syntagmatic aspect as the paradigm one - the choice of a word and not its place» Bralczyk J. (2004), J^zyk na sprzedaz, czyli o tym jak j^zyk sluzy reklamie i jak reklama uzywa j^zyka, Gdanskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdansk, pp. 146.. In this case the adjectives elegant, unique, delicate, minimalist, divine, classic, etc. refer to the owner of the product and not the product itself, the woman who will be like that after buying the bracelet. Moreover, these adjectives «add character, grace and glamour. They do not decorate the nouns but modify their meaning, stimulate the senses, emphasize the benefits, evoke emotions» Wrycza-Bekier J. (2016), Fast text. Jak pisac krotkie teksty, ktore blyskawicznie przyciqgnq uwag$, Helion, Gliwice, pp. 191..

Among the linguistic and stylistic means and lexis mentioned, the particular attention is paid to the word recommend, a derivative from a lexeme recommend in the meaning «to tell somebody to do something or pitch someone or something to someone else» Drabik I., Sobol E., Kubiak-Sokol A., Wisniakowska L. (oprac.) (1996), Slownik jzyka polskiego PWN, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 1360., (60), directly conveying information about whether it is worth buying the product or not. The verb I recommend, i.e. in the first person singular is an obligatory component of persuasive texts, mainly those with advertising function. Here are some examples:

[.] It draws the eyes of other people. I recommend [P];

I recommend. In reality it is much prettier. [P];

Great purchase, beautiful jewel. I wear it without the beads in a set with another Pandora bracelet. I recommend. [P].

Structurally, testimonials consist of a header and a proper text or only a proper text. Based on the conveyed analysis, it can be concluded that a testimonial is a persuasive message that presents a product with its pluses and minuses. The information that is inconvenient for the brand determines the credibility of the author of the genre. The initial delimiter in the form of an informing leader is a header and the actual text is a body. The analyzed forms of expression have the features that are desired in every persuasive message: attractiveness, suggestibility, transparency, memorization, brevity and authenticity Bralczyk J. (2004), Jzyk na sprzedaz, czyli o tym jak j^zyk sluzy reklamie i jak reklama uzywa j^zyka, Gdanskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdansk, pp. 146..

The users-consumers describe their experiences, doubts, problems and solutions is order to convince others. Here is an example of objections regarding the choice of the proper product size (15): Size consistent with the description, I was able to buy a product after measuring according to the instructions on the website... [...] [P]; [...] I had a dilemma as to the size, but I got it in 100% :) with a wrist circumference of 16cm, a bracelet size of 17cm fits perfectly. I recommend. ;) [P]. A similarly numerous group are replicas informing about that the bracelet was bought as a gift (for birthday, name day, anniversary, Christmas), (13): I got it for Christmas and am very pleased... [P]; [.] A bracelet bough as a gift was 100% hit. The delivery was very quick [P], suggesting this solution in case of a lack of idea for the loved ones or yourself.

In Pandora online store the testimonials appear in the form of statements (or statements with a photo) by users-consumers who purchased the product. Such form is presented as a quote, because the testimonials are put on the website of the sender - brand owner and not the user. There is a probability of top-down selection of published opinions. The unfamiliarity with the senders does not prevent from treating such statements as authoritative and as proofs of rightness Cox L.K. (2019) [aktualizacja 2020], «14 Testimonial Page Examples You'll Want to Copy», , due to the number of replicas added and their linguistic-stylistic shape. These days, the testimonials also take the form of, e.g. «video, audio, case study, social media, customer interviews, authority, peer review, blog post, press review» Ibid., what is worth a detailed analysis. Conducting such a holistic study can be a compendium of knowledge about testimonials.

Testimonials are the deliberate actions of owners of various companies, who care about the recognition and sale of their own products. It depends on them whether on a website there will be an option to add opinions, a need to log in, etc. The observations made confirm the reflections of Grazyna Filip, that: «Branding is subject to all activities of concerns - it is a carefully deliberate and implemented process subject to constant control and open to innovation» Filip, G. (2019), Napзdzane emocjami. Jзzykowa kreacja marki, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, Rzeszфw, pp. 240.. There is no coincidence in marketing strategies.

As part of the conducted research, the doubts as to the credibility and non-preparation of the texts published on the website, are raised by the following testimonial, in which the sender's signature is not consistent with the signature in the opinion.

lexicographic testimonial media

References

1. Bralczyk J. (2004), Jqzyk na sprzedaz, czyli o tym jak jqzyk sluzy reklamie i jak reklama uzywa jqzyka, Gdanskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdansk, pp. 146.

2. Brett M., Wentzel D., Tomczak T. (2008), „Effects of Susceptibility to Normative Influence and Type of Testimonial Attitudes Toward Print Advertising”, Journal of Advertising, vol 37, no. 1, p. 29-43.

3. Cialdini R., (2000), Wywieranie wplywu na ludzi. Teoria i praktyka, Gdanskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdansk, pp. 276.

4. Deszczynski B. (2005), „Zarz^dzanie relacjami z klientami (CRM) w przedsiqsbiorstwie - istota strategii i uwarunkowania jej wdrazania”, Zeszyty Naukowe. Akademia Ekonomiczna w Poznaniu, nr 65, p. 388-399.

5. Drabik I., Sobol E. (oprac.) (2004), Slownik poprawnej polszczyzny PWN, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 1162.

6. Drabik I., Sobol E., Kubiak-Sokol A., Wisniakowska L. (oprac.) (1996), Slownik jqszyka polskiego PWN, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 1360.

7. Filip G. (2019), Napqdzane emocjami. J^zykowa kreacja marki, Wydawnictwo Uniwer- sytetu Rzeszowskiego, Rzeszow, pp. 240.

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9. Laskowski R., 1999, „Przymiotnik”, Encyklopedia j^zykoznawstwa ogolnego, red. K. Polanski, Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolinskich, Wroclaw, pp. 475.

10. Markowski A. (2012), Wyklady z leksykologii, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 200.

11. Naruszewicz-Duchlinska A. (2003), „Pseudonimy internetowe (nicknames) jako forma autoreklamy”, Prace Jzykoznawcze, t. 5, p. 85-98.

12. Ozog K. (2014), „Ustna odmiana jzyka ogolnego”, Wspolczesny j^zyk polski, red. J. Bartminskiego, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Sklodowskiej, Lublin, p. 85-98.

13. Pisarek W. (red.) (2006), Slownik terminologii medialnej, Universitas, Krakow, pp. 250.

14. Warchala J. (2003), Kategoria potocznosci w jzyku, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Slskiego, Katowice, pp. 288.

15. Wrycza-Bekier J. (2016), Fast text. Jak pisac krotkie teksty, ktore blyskawicznie przycign uwag, Helion, Gliwice, pp. 191.

16. Zdunkiewicz-Jedynak, D. (2008), Wyklady ze stylistyki, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, pp. 220.

17. Cox L.K. (2019) [aktualizacja 2020], «14 Testimonial Page Examples You'll Want to Copy», dostзpne pod adresem:

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