Eschatological challenges of the Russian-Ukrainian war: nuclear apocalypse as a social threat

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Eschatological challenges of the Russian-Ukrainian war: nuclear apocalypse as a social threat

І.K. Vitiuk

Abstract

The biggest military conflict of the 21st century is the war in the center of Europe between Russia and Ukraine. Because of it, the world is facing a real threat of nuclear war. Russia has turned to threats of using nuclear weapons. This factor, along with a number of others, raised the question of the effectiveness of the system of collective security in the world. The article is aimed at researching the challenges of the highest level of danger that the whole world is facing during the Russian- Ukrainian war. The purpose of the article is to analyze the eschatological challenges of the Russian- Ukrainian war, assess the nuclear threat to the world, and find answers to questions about the probability of a nuclear apocalypse because of the Russian-Ukrainian war. Challenges of the Russian-Ukrainian war, which can threaten global catastrophes, are considered eschatological in this article. Although eschatology arises within religion as a study of the final fate of the world and humanity, with the development of technologies capable of contributing to a man-made "apocalypse", the idea of the probability of the "end of the world" goes far beyond religion.

Based, on a comparative analysis, a study of the eschatological challenges that Russia poses to the world public has been carried, out. It is stated in the article that eschatological narratives either relayed by mass media, in the form of propaganda or under the influence of the general trend of alarmism, are a means of informational and psychological warfare, which is used to destabilize the socio-political situation in the world. Among the challenges capable of causing a nuclear apocalypse, the following ones were outlined: the threat of nuclear war using nuclear blackmail technology; arms race; nuclear terrorism,; the threat of an increase in the number of states with nuclear status; the threat of the beginning of the Third World War. The threat of using biological or chemical weapons, which is often voiced by Russian propagandists, is also highlighted. In the conclusions to the article, it is indicated that the way of preventing the outlined threats of a nuclear apocalypse should, be victory of Ukraine over Russia with the subsequent deprivation of Russia's nuclear status.

Key words: Eschatology, Nuclear Weapons, Nuclear Blackmail, Nuclear Terrorism, Nuclear Apocalypse, War.

Есхатологічні виклики російсько-української війни: ядерний апокаліпсис як соціальна загроза

І.К. Вітюк

Анотація

eschatological challenge nuclear apocalypse

Найбільший військовий конфлікт ХХІ століття - війна в центрі Європи між Росією і Україною. Вона поставила світ перед реальною загрозою ядерної війни. Росія звернулася до погроз використання ядерної зброї. І цей чинник, разом із низкою інших, підняв питання про ефективність системи колективної безпеки у світі. Пропонована стаття спрямована на дослідження викликів найвищого рівня небезпеки, які виникають під час російсько-української війни перед усім світом. Метою статті є аналіз есхатологічних викликів російсько-української війни, оцінки ядерної загрози для світу, пошук відповідей на питання про ймовірність ядерного апокаліпсису в результаті російсько-української війни. Виклики російсько-української війни, які здатні загрожувати катастрофами світового масштабу, у цій статті розглядаються як есхатологічні. Есхатологія хоча й виникає у межах релігії як вчення про кінцеву долю світу і людства, із розвитком технологій, здатних сприяти "апокаліпсису” рукотворному, ідея ймовірності "кінця світу" виходить далеко за межі релігії.

На основі порівняльного аналізу здійснено дослідження есхатологічних викликів, перед якими Росія ставить світову громадськість. У статті вказано, що есхатологічні наративи, які ретранслюються ЗМІ, чи у формі пропаганди, чи під впливом загальної тенденції алармізму, є засобом інформаційної та психологічної війни, який використовується для дестабілізації соціально-політичної ситуації у світі. Серед викликів, здатних спричинити ядерний апокаліпсис, було виділено: загрозу ядерної війни із використанням технології ядерного шантажу; гонку озброєнь; ядерний тероризм; загрозу збільшення чисельності держав із ядерним статусом; загрозу початку Третьої світової війни. Виділено також загрозу використання біологічної чи хімічної зброї, яка часто лунає від російських пропагандистів. У висновках до статті вказано, що шляхом попередження окреслених загроз ядерного апокаліпсису має стати перемога України над Росією із подальшим позбавленням Росії ядерного статусу.

Ключові слова: есхатологія, ядерна зброя, ядерний шантаж, ядерний тероризм, ядерний апокаліпсис, війна.

Introduction of the issue

The war waged by Russia against Ukraine became the largest military conflict of the 21st century. The full-scale invasion of Russia on the territory of Ukraine on February 24, 2022 opened a brand new page in the history of wars, because the world faced a real threat of nuclear war. The aggressor country, unable to achieve military goals on the battlefield, turned to threats of using nuclear weapons. This factor, along with a number of others, raised the question of the effectiveness of the system of collective security in the world. The activities of the UN and other international organizations indicate a crisis in the system of collective security, especially after the UN refused to classify Russia's actions in Ukraine as genocide against Ukrainians. Most experts and scientists fully understand that the UN, in the form in which it has existed since the Second World War, needs to be reformed. Russia, having declared itself the successor of the USSR as a member in the UN, in the Security Council of this organization, makes the effective operation of the organization impossible , since, being a de facto aggressor and a party to the conflict, de jure occupies the place of a peacemaker. Moreover, its actions as a member of the UN are aimed at achieving its own goals, and not at maintaining peace. For a long time after the collapse of the USSR, the image of the "second army of the world" created by means of propaganda in the Russian mass media kept in fear those countries that were at the opposite pole since the Cold War - the countries of the "collective west", and the rest of the world. This is how Russia gained the reputation of a country that is feared, against which no one will oppose, against which no one can stand in a military confrontation. Russia's status of a nuclear state is a strong argument in favor of this mythology. Lack of Russia's victory on the battlefield causes the situation that from time to time, with varying intensity, we hear from Russian officials and propagandists a narrative about the possibility of Russia using nuclear weapons against Ukraine or other countries that most actively support Ukraine. This very Russia's persistent return of the issue of the nuclear threat to the context of the discourse of maintaining global security can rightfully be considered the most serious challenge of our time.

Therefore, the article is aimed at researching the challenges of the highest level of danger that arise during the Russian-Ukrainian war before the whole world. It helps to determine the extent of threats to countries that directly border Russia, countries that support Ukraine in confrontation with it, as well as to develop strategies to avoid a nuclear apocalypse and preserve the existence of life on earth in general.

The purpose of the research is to analyze the eschatological challenges of the Russian-Ukrainian war, assess the nuclear threat to the world, and find answers to questions about the probability of a nuclear apocalypse as a result of the Russian-Ukrainian war.

Discussion and results

Among the numerous challenges of the Russian - Ukrainian war, the most large-scale and threatening are those ones that are found in the world's media resources and threaten the stability of the entire world. In this article, they are outlined by the term "eschatological challenges", by which we mean threats capable of causing catastrophic consequences for humanity, a real apocalypse at the global level of the planet's existence.

Threats of a planetary scale that may arise in the course of the Russian- Ukrainian war are considered in this article in their eschatological context. Eschatology - (Gr. coxaroAoyia ^ d.-Gr. soxarog "ultimate, last" and Aoyog "word; knowledge") - a religious teaching about the ultimate fate of man, humanity and the world [1: 140]. Eschatology arises within religion as part of a doctrine at a time when the threat to the existence of humanity was thought to be potentially possible only in a supernatural way. With the development of technologies that can contribute to a man-made "apocalypse", the idea of the possibility of the "end of the world" goes far beyond religion. Eschatological ideas are especially relevant in connection with events that may one way or another threaten the existence of the entire world, such as Covid-19 or the Russian- Ukrainian war. Therefore, in our opinion, consideration of the nuclear threat to the existence of humanity is quite possible within the framework of the analysis of eschatological factors of the modern world.

Challenge one: the threat of nuclear war. The introduction of constant threats to use nuclear weapons by the President of Russia into the global geopolitical discourse brings humanity back to the long-known axiom: a nuclear war cannot be won. World leaders from the highest podiums announced that [2]. However, the "nuclear narrative" continues to be a leading one in the list of means for Russia to achieve its military goals in Ukraine. Although nuclear weapons have been the most lethal to mankind for more than eighty years, in international politics they have been considered primarily as a weapon of deterrence. For military purposes, nuclear weapons were used only once in history: in 1945 in Japan.

Among the technologies of "rattling" nuclear weapons, Russia widely uses direct nuclear blackmail. Note that nuclear war is possible only between countries possessing nuclear weapons. As of 2022, the existence of a "nuclear club" consisting of eight states has been officially recognized: the USA, Russia, Great Britain, France, the People's Republic of China, India, Pakistan, and the DPRK [3]. The presence of nuclear weapons in Israel, as well as the potential possibility of their development by Iran, remains an open question.

Ukraine gave up nuclear weapons in 1991, when the Verkhovna Rada announced Ukraine's nuclear-free status [4]. Belarus and Kazakhstan also gave up nuclear weapons. Now we have a situation where a "nuclear" country threatens to use nuclear weapons against a "non-nuclear" country, which is actually nuclear blackmail. Russia uses it quite effectively as a means of informational and psychological warfare: as a factor in the escalation of nuclear risks in the world and as a means of deterring military aid to Ukraine [5]. At the same time, the nuclear rhetoric is strengthened by some actions of Russia, such as, for example, the transfer of nuclear warheads to the territory of Belarus, to the borders of NATO [6].

The seriousness of nuclear threats to the existence of humanity in connection with Russia's invasion of Ukraine is evidenced by the movement of the hands of the "Doomsday Clock" closer to midnight. This project was created in 1947 by the creators of the first atomic weapons, who two years earlier founded the "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists" in order to show how close to self-destruction humanity was. During the 75 years of the project's existence, the hands of the clock were moved 25 times, either closer, or further from midnight [7]. The furthest from midnight the hand was moved to the mark of 17 minutes to in 1991 in connection with the signing of the treaty on the reduction of strategic weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union.

On January 24, 2023, the second hand was moved to the mark 90 seconds to midnight, the closest indicator to the time of the disaster in its entire history. In addition, the time we live was called "a time of unprecedented danger" [8]. Among the factors that put the world so close to the brink of disaster, Russia's war against Ukraine is mentioned as the main one. In the Doomsday Clock 2023 statement, other threats related to nuclear weapons were described, the understanding of which influenced the decision to move hands, in particular: the danger of an arms race after the expiration of the nuclear weapons treaty between the United States, Russia, СНВ-III; China's expansion of its nuclear potential; the possibility of creating nuclear weapons by Iran; increase in nuclear arsenal by India and Pakistan; modernization of nuclear weapons by the USA, Russia and China [8].

The next eschatological challenge of our time is the arms race, which has already de facto spread all over the world. Russia's war against Ukraine convincingly proved two facts: first, no country in the world has weapons enough to wage war; secondly, modern wars are wars of technology [9]. We watched as Ukraine, European countries, especially former social camp countries, used up their stockpiles of weapons of past generations, developed during the Soviet Union, and to a large extent this is Soviet weaponry, transferring it to Ukraine. Russia also fights mainly with Soviet weapons, the reserves of which, although huge, are not endless. At the same time, the advantage of the Armed Forces at the front began with the use of innovative military technologies: drones, satellite communication, and reconnaissance equipment [9].

The supply of weapons to Ukraine allowed defense companies to make huge profits. Yes, their shares have increased since January 2022: Rheinmetall, Germany - by 190%; Saab, Sweden - by 125%; Thales, France - by 72%; Leonardo, Italy - by 62%; BAE Systems, Great Britain - by 60%; Lockheed Martin, USA - by 35% [9]. At the same time, NATO countries increased their own defense budgets: Poland - 2.5 times, Germany - 2% of GDP; France - by a third. Countries that received weapons from Russia are forced to reorient themselves to other manufacturers [9].

However, the apocalypse of the Russian-Ukrainian war is fueled not only by the narrative about the use of nuclear weapons. Another military-strategic technology of the Russian Federation has become a serious challenge for the world: the capture of nuclear power plants on the territory of Ukraine - Chornobyl and Zaporizhzhia, which poses a direct threat of man-made disasters, the consequences of which are difficult to even predict.

In this connection, the next serious challenge for the world is nuclear terrorism. In the media space, this term describes the actions of the occupying Russian troops regarding the capture of the Ukrainian nuclear power plants: Chornobyl and Zaporizhzhya [10]. The capture of the territory of the Chernobyl NPP was carried out at the beginning of the full-scale invasion in February-March 2022.

While on its territory, the Russian occupying forces destroyed and disabled the unique equipment created specifically for the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. And now it is impossible to track either the level of radiation pollution of the environment at the station and near it, or the situation of radiation leaks from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, if there are any [11].

In the "Bulletin of Nuclear Scientists" for January 2023, the danger of Russia bringing "its war to the sites of the Chornobyl and Zaporizhzhya NPPs" was also indicated as a factor in the world's approach to an unfavorable future development scenario, which violated international protocols and rejected "the efforts of the International Atomic Energy Agency energy aimed at protecting these stations" [8]. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant was occupied for over a month. On March 31, 2022, it became known that the Russian invaders had left its territory, and the estimated losses from looting alone amounted to 135 million dollars [12].

Captured by the Russians, Zaporizhzhya NPP is the largest power plant in Europe. And it remains the main means of nuclear terrorism. IAEA representatives made a statement about the violation of "all key principles of nuclear safety" at the ZNPP after they were allowed to the power plant. In particular, the damage to the NPP building and the security system at auxiliary production facilities was indicated; problems with the supply of diesel fuel for backup generators; restricting staff access to certain areas of the station; lack of communication between the ZNPP and the branch generator "Energoatom" and the IAEA [13]. After the IAEA mission completed its visit to the power plant, two of its representatives remained there, but this does not significantly affect the situation with the capture of the ZNPP or the creation of a demilitarized zone around it.

An extremely threatening concomitant circumstance of the capture of the ZANP, which can have serious far-reaching consequences in the field of nuclear energy (and security in general), is Russia's alleged theft of secret US nuclear technology. Thus, as early as June 2021, the US Department of Energy made a statement regarding cooperation in the field of maintenance of the ZNPP reactor, namely the introduction of a new maintenance procedure [14]. According to CNN, on March 17, 2023, the head of the US Office of Non-Proliferation Policy of the Ministry of Energy, Andrea Ferkile, in a letter to the general director of Rosatom, informed about the prohibition of their access to "nuclear technical data of American origin, which are under the export control of the United States government", which would be a violation of US legislation [15].

Moreover, although there was no official response to this letter, in less than a month the US Treasury introduced sanctions against the state corporation "Rosatom" and its related structures [16]. It is reasonable to assume that the reasons for this include the violation of the ban on access to the above-mentioned secret technology.

At the stage of discussing whether the hands of the "Doomsday Clock" should be moved, in which direction and how far, the experts were going because of the war in Ukraine to move them even closer to midnight. However, taking into account the factor of active opposition of the US government to Russia's military aggression against Ukraine, it was decided to stop at the 90 second mark [17]. And this to a certain extent indicates the recognition of a tendency towards some reduction of the threat of a nuclear apocalypse of the world.

Among the factors that influenced the decision to set the risk indicator 90 seconds before the disaster, experts call the biothreat factor. The Covid-19 pandemic has opened a new era in human history, for which a pandemic is a common phenomenon that can happen at any time. Mankind will need up to several years to overcome them. Without fixing on the question of the origin of the virus that causes Covid-19, most researchers emphasize the possibility of a leak from biolaboratories. Of particular concern is the tendency in Russian propaganda to spread the narrative about "secret biolaboratories" in Ukraine and other countries of the world. Therefore, in addition to an accident with a leak, a Russian provocation is possible, during which some biological research center may be blown up or set on fire [8].

Another eschatological challenge of our time is the increase in the number of nuclear states, or the Iranian threat. Iran has been under sanctions since 1979. Some of the sanctions concern Iran's nuclear program. In 1995, the US government cut off all financial and trade agreements with Iran to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons. However, Iran does not stop its nuclear program, in response to which the UN Security Council adopted a series of sanctions from 2006 to 2015. Under their pressure, in 2015, official Tehran announced its readiness to abandon the development of nuclear weapons. However, in 2018, the government of US President Donald Trump withdrew from the Vienna Nuclear Agreement, thus removing all obligations from Iran to end its nuclear program [18].

Because of such relations between Iran and the USA (the "collective West"), the level of "anti-Americanism" in various manifestations of foreign policy is increasing in many countries of the global South. It is the last factor that is of significant importance in making a decision regarding the choice of whose side to take in the war between Russia and Ukraine. Since the USA is the "enemy" of Iran, so is the one whom the USA supports. And vice versa: the enemy of my enemy should situationally become a potential ally. However, it is not only Russia's anti-American/anti-Western rhetoric that attracts Iran to its side. Russia possesses uranium enrichment technologies, which it agreed to transfer to it (it is possible that already enriched uranium is also included). In return, Iran agreed to provide Russia with lethal weapons (Shahed drones) and negotiated with Russia to provide it with Iranian ballistic missiles. And although official Tehran refuses to recognize the very fact of its supply of weapons to Russia, the found wreckage of these drones indicates the opposite. The reward for violating sanctions is becoming a more important factor for Iran than the consequences of Western sanctions. As it became known from the statement of the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the USA, General Mark Milley, Iran, having received the uranium enrichment technology from Russia, will be able to create nuclear weapons in the near future. But he also emphasizes that the task of the US is to prevent this [19]. In this way, the world can get another nuclear country and, accordingly, increase the risk of a nuclear war.

No less a global challenge in the modern world is the direct threat of the beginning of the Third World War. According to the Ipsos survey, over the past year, in connection with the Russian-Ukrainian war, the percentage of those who believe that there will be an attack with nuclear, biological or chemical weapons has increased from 66 to 75%. And the Third World War may begin by 2047 [20]. It is known that the President of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, said on February 20, 2023, that the cause of the Third World War could be a military alliance between Russia and China [21]. Such an alliance between Russia and China, which Iran is likely to join, is very dangerous, as it will create the greatest problems for humanity in the 21st century [22].

Oleksandr Kraev, an expert of the Foreign Policy Council "Ukrainian Prism" believes that the Third World War is already underway, but in different parts of the world in different ways. In Ukraine - in the form of a hot war phase [23]. Another modern trend is to regard the war in Ukraine as a world war, which, despite the fact that it did not go beyond the borders of Ukraine, has almost all the signs of a world war [24]. In this understanding of the world war, Ukraine has already saved the world from the Third World War, because the greatest evil of the 21st century is Russian fascism in the form of rashism and Putinism.

A Chinese attack on Taiwan, when the United States takes the side of Taiwan, can provoke the Third World War. As a result, we will get a war between two "big" powers, which will automatically turn into a world war.

In addition to all of the above, Russia should be recognized as an eco-terrorist today. Due to the Russian-Ukrainian war, a third of Ukrainian land is unsafe for agriculture. Mainly due to mining and soil pollution. As of February 6, 2023, more than 2.3 thousand cases of environmental damage were recorded in the amount of approx. 1.9 trillion hryvnias. In fact, the Russian-Ukrainian war caused serious damage not only to the environment of Ukraine, but also to the whole of Europe. Its consequences can be long-term and unpredictable [25].

Conclusions and research perspectives

So, the Russian-Ukrainian war became a real trigger for a number of apocalyptic threats to humanity, which gives grounds to consider it in an eschatological sense. Eschatological narratives relayed by mass media, either in the form of propaganda or under the influence of the general trend of alarmism, are also a means of informational and psychological warfare, which is used to destabilize the socio - political situation in the world. The leading place in this belongs to the exploitation of the idea of the threat of nuclear war. It is considered the most likely apocalyptic event of our time. All the more so because Russia constantly talks about nuclear war as an aggressor country that not only possesses nuclear weapons, but also threatens to use them against non-nuclear states.

The presence of nuclear weapons is the reason for the emergence of the phenomenon of nuclear blackmail as a technology for conducting the Russian- Ukrainian war. Nuclear blackmail involves third countries in the narrative of nuclear war, although it is used mainly for a preventive purpose: to prevent the supply of weapons to Ukraine.

Nuclear terrorism is a new phenomenon in the history of warfare. The use of the "peaceful atom" for military purposes carries potentially eschatological threats to humanity. The damage caused by the presence of occupying Russian troops on the territory of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is still being investigated. Now, the situation with the seizure of the ZANP by the Russian occupying forces and all the potential threats arising from it remains unresolved.

Arms race is not a new phenomenon, but one of the most threatening for the existence of humanity. Russia's provocation through nuclear blackmail of an arms race, which is actually already in full swing, increases humanity's potential for self-destruction. However, on the other hand, the dangerous precedent of the Russian-Ukrainian war proves the need to strengthen the defense capabilities of each individual country and the importance of military defense alliances.

Russia's strengthening of situational allies in the Russian-Ukrainian war with technological means may lead to an increase in the club of nuclear states . A country with nuclear status and radical views on reality may appear on the world map - Iran.

The threat of use of biological or chemical weapons by Russia is substantiated with the help of a propaganda narrative about the alleged existence of secret biolaboratories in Ukraine, where biological weapons are manufactured using Western technologies. Moreover, the Russian Federation's frequent appeal to the biothreat narrative can be seen as an intention to use such weapons by Russia itself, as a provocation or with a preventive purpose.

The threat of the Third World War. The escalation of the war between Russia and Ukraine, which is actually a war between two civilizations, into the Third World War is a popular narrative in the world information space. Exploitation of the idea of the threat of the Third World War is used as a means of putting pressure on Ukraine, pushing it to negotiate with Russia. On the other hand, we observe a trend that indicates the perception of the threat of the Third World War as something that must be prevented by any means. And Ukraine's victory over Russia, with the subsequent deprivation of the latter's nuclear status, can prevent it. Ultimately, Ukraine's victory over Russia should end with the deprivation of Russia's nuclear status, which can prevent a nuclear threat to the future of humanity.

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14. США застерегли РФ від заволодіння секретними американськими технологіями на ЗАЕС. Вівторок, 18 квітня 2023. URL: https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/news/2023/04/18/7160089/ (дата звернення: 07.05.2023).

15. Bertrand, Natasha, Lister, Tim. US warns Russia not to touch American nuclear technology at Ukrainian nuclear plant. URL: https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/russia-ukraine-war-news-04-18-23/h_358d97fbee9db908b910c0cb9a4218fa (дата звернення: 04.05.2023).

16. США запровадили додаткові санкції проти РФ, зокрема структур Усманова й "Росатому". URL: https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/news/2023/04/12/7159700/ (дата звернення: 09.05.2023).

17. Бережанський І. Що показує годинник Судного дня, який символізує наближення світу до ядерного знищення. URL: https://tsn.ua/nauka_it/100-sekund-do-kincya-godinnik-sudnogo-dnya-vidrahovuye-sekundi-do-pivnochi-ta-vimirannya-lyudey-2168992.html (дата звернення: 03.05.2023).

18. Ель Д., Айзеле І., Перепадя О. Нові і старі санкції Заходу щодо Ірану. URL: https://www.dw.com/uk/novi-i-stari-sankcii-zahodu-sodo-iranu/a-63503642 (дата звернення: 02.05.2023).

19. Собенко Н. Іран може створити ядерну бомбу за кілька місяців - генерал Міллі. URL: https://suspilne.media/424305-iran-moze-stvoriti-adernu-bombu-za-kilka-misaciv-general-milli/ (дата звернення: 02.05.2023).

20. 73% населення планети вважає, що атака ядерною чи хімічною зброєю можлива в 2023, а третя світова може початись до 2047 - Ipsos. URL: https://ukrainian.voanews.com/a/ipsos-opytuvannia-svitova-viina/6840304.html (дата звернення: 06.05.2023).

21. Гулійчук Д. Зеленський попередив про загрозу світової війни, якщо Китай підтримає Росію. URL: https://tsn.ua/politika/zelenskiy-poperediv-pro-zagrozu-svitovoyi-viyni-yakscho-kitay-pidtrimaye-rosiyu-2269108.html (дата звернення: 04.05.2023).

22. Черновол К. Проблеми для світу протягом багатьох років створюватимуть три країни - генерал Міллі. URL: https://www.unian.ua/world/general-milli-zayaviv-shcho-rosiya-kitay-ta-iran-stvoryuvatimut-problemi-dlya-svitu-12198267.html (дата звернення: 06.05.2023).

23. Олександр Краєв, експерт Ради зовнішньої політики "Українська призма", вважає, що зараз у світі етап нового глобального протистояння, яке вже можна називати новою ітерацією холодної війни. URL: https://espreso.tv/tretya-svitova-viyna-vzhe-trivae-ale-v-riznikh-chastinakh-svitu-po-riznomu-ekspert-mizhnarodnik-kraev (дата звернення: 03.05.2023).

24. Швець В. Чи зможе Україна врятувати планету від Третьої світової? URL: https://wz.lviv.ua/ukraine/482364-chy-zmozhe-ukraina-vriatuvaty-planetu-vid-tretoi-svitovoi (дата звернення: 28.04.2023).

25. “Екотероризм: як Росія руйнує екосистему України та Європи”. URL: https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-presshall/3664744-ekoterorizm-ak-rosia-rujnue-ekosistemu-ukraini-ta-evropi.html (дата звернення: 02.05.2023).

References (translated and transliterated)

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17. SSHA zaprovadyly dodatkovi sanktsiyi proty RF, zokrema struktur Usmanova y "Rosatomu". [The USA introduced additional sanctions against the Russian Federation, in particular the structures of Usmanov and Rosatom]. URL: https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/news/2023/04/12/7159700/ (last accessed: 09.05.2023). (In Ukrainian).

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21. 73% naselennya planety vvazhaye, shcho ataka yadernoyu chy khimichnoyu zbroyeyu mozhlyva v 2023, a tretya svitova mozhe pochatys' do 2047 - Ipsos. [73% of the world's population believes that an attack with nuclear or chemical weapons is possible in 2023, and the third world may begin by 2047 - Ipsos]. URL: https://ukrainian.voanews.com/a/ipsos-opytuvannia-svitova-viina/6840304.html (last accessed: 06.05.2023). (In Ukrainian).

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25. Oleksandr Krayev, ekspert Rady zovnishn'oyi polityky "Ukrayins'ka pryzma", vvazhaye, shcho zaraz u sviti etap novoho hlobal 'noho protystoyannya, yake vzhe mozhna nazyvaty novoyu iteratsiyeyu kholodnoyi viyny. [Oleksandr Kraev, an expert at the Ukrainian Prism Foreign Policy Council, believes that the world is now at the stage of a new global confrontation, which can already be called a new iteration of the Cold War]. URL: https://espreso.tv/tretya-svitova-viyna-vzhe-trivae-ale-v-riznikh-chastinakh-svitu-po-riznomu-ekspert-mizhnarodnik-kraev (last accessed: 03.05.2023). (In Ukrainian).

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