Agitation and propaganda of OUN against the Soviet Union in 1944-1945 in eastern Galicia

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National University "Lviv Polytechnic"

Agitation and propaganda of OUN against the Soviet Union in 1944-1945 in eastern Galicia

Koniukhov S.V.

Introduction

Agitation-propagandist activity is an important area of activity of any political organization. Bringing the goals to the people, spreading the ideas among them and eventually winning the people's support - such problems were prior for Ukrainian nationalists as well. As it is known, propaganda aims to promote the formation of certain views in the broad masses of the population. The success of political organization depends on the successful and well-organized propaganda. Therefore, the problem of agitation-propagandist activity of the OUN is important and needs to be considered.

In Soviet times any information about the Ukrainian national liberation movement was either ignored or presented only in negative terms, so the theme of agitation work OUN and UPA (UPA - Ukrainian Insurgent Army) was not raised at all, and in the scientific literature the publishing titles of OUN were mentioned only occasionally. In the post-soviet period the studies of S. Kost, Ja. Romanyshyn, V. Moroz, appeared [1].

An important contribution to the research of the question of publishing and propahanda activity of OUN was made by O. Stasiuk in the book «Видавничо-пропагандивна діяльність ОУН (1941-1953 рр.)» ("Publishing and propaganda activity of the OUN (1941-1953)") [2]. She reproduced the complete picture of publishing activity of the UNO. She also drew attention to the structure of publishing-technical net and the territory of its distribution, described the ways of arrangement the printing houses, gave the statistics on the number of printing houses and the amounts of printed literature.

Many works of diaspora scholars are devoted to the publishing and propaganda activity of OUN. An interesting information on this subject is submitted in the study by L. Shankovsky «УПА та її підпільна література» (“The OUN and its underground literature”) [3] in which he not possessing the comprehensive information about the total amount of OUN's literature still laid the beginning for the future study of the underground publications.

An important contribution to the research of the agitationpropagandist activity of the OUN and UPA was made by other other diaspora scholars as well, namely V. Makar, S. Holyash, Ya. Haiwas, Ya.Homza [4].

The studies by Ye. Shtendera, P.Potichnyi are of great importance. They hold a lot of factual material about the agitation activity of OUN, presents a detailed description of events, the authors not only share their analytical observations, but also analyze them, submit the comparative characteristics of agitation materials and make scientific conclusions. However, Ye. Shtendera, P.Potichnyi emphasize the comprehensive activity of the Ukrainian Supreme Liberation Council and only indicate that agitation and propaganda was just one of its aspects [5].

Ukrainian historian P. Mirchuk in his own study analysed the agitation-propaganda activity of the UP A, pays his attention to only a few brochures by UPA. In his work «Українська Повстанська Армія 1942-1952» ("Ukrainian Insurgent Army, 1942-1952") [6] researcher did not consider separately publishing, propaganda or agitation activity, and considered them in the context of the UPA's departments' resistance to the occupation regimes in general.

The purpose of our scientific exploration is to explore the agitation-propaganda work of OUN and UPA. We set ourselves the following objectives:

- to find the ways of propaganda, to which the Ukrainian nationalists resorted;

- to analyze the exact arguments or facts used by the Ukrainian nationalists in order to influence the masses and to spread their ideas;

- to compare the peculiarities of the leaflets and brochures aimed for the population and the soldiers of the Red Army.

For the observations we shall use propaganda leaflets, brochures published by the Ukrainian nationalists in Eastern Galicia, also we shall examine archival materials which reveal a wider scale of agitation work of OUN and UPA.

Outline of the main text

As it is known, in the second half of 1944 all the Ukrainian lands were again occupied by the Bolsheviks. Bolsheviks, who saw themselves as liberators, were coming back to Galicia. For any occasion, they declared their support to "brotherly Ukrainian people" in its fight against the German invaders and the restoration of the economy. To promote their benefits, they used a variety of means: meetings, press, posters. Their propaganda was usually accompanied by a promise to facilitate political and economic life. The Bolshevik authorities with all means very actively impelled to support it.

Ukrainian nationalists, while in hiding, of course, did not have such a strong agitation-propaganda base as their opponents did, and they ultimately did not have the possibility to openly and widely promote their views. Caught in a bind informative , they still wanted by any means to fulfil their political mission. They understood that for achieving their objectives is necessary to carry out the explanatory work among the population, to induce people into action. Certain documents evidence this, these are such as

«Інструкція в справі пропагандивної роботи» (“The Instruction in the Case of Propaganda Work”), «Інструкції на час подій» [7] (“The Instructions for the Events”). One of the instructions reads, «Вся наша пропаганда мусить бути спрямована проти Сталіна, проти сталінського режиму, проти купки кремлівських заправил» [8]. (“All of our propaganda must be against Stalin, against Stalin's regime, against a bunch of Kremlin instigators”)

Among a variety of methods of propaganda, the leaders of OUN selected propaganda via the written word. «Друковане слово в наш період має велику вагу, тому що друковане слово авторитетне взагалі. Сам друк свідчить про те, що є сила. [9]» ("The printed word in our time has great value because the printed word is generally authoritative. Printing itself indicates that there is a power...") - says one of the instructions.

Let us note that from the beginning of the OUN and in the process of building its organizational structure there existed the referantura of propaganda. Delivering to members and the public the widest possible information about the goals, objectives and tactics of the national liberation movement, counter-propaganda was among the main objectives of the referantura of propaganda. The importance of this work confirmed the experience of struggle in the Ukrainian lands and abroad as well.

In 1944, the main center of agitation and information service was headed by Petro Fedun (pseudo "Poltava"). Historian O. Lenartovych in his article «Організація пропагандистської діяльності ОУН-Б у 1940-1950-х рр.» ("The Organization of Propaganda Activity of OUN-B in 1940-1950 's ") notes that reference office of propaganda had its own structure, which was generally consistent with the organizational one. The arial centres of propaganda in charge of the work in the territory of a single land obeyed to P. Fedun. In turn, the district centres were subject to the arial ones, the over regional ones - to the district ones, the regional ones - to the over regional ones [10]. The OUN propaganda apparatus was the ramified structure with well-organized construction. Its work had been organized at a high level and covered the whole range of tasks: the distribution of powers and responsibilities, management and monitoring of propaganda activity, recruitment and training, publishing etc.

The main task of the Ukrainian underground before joining the Bolsheviks in 1944 in Eastern Galicia was a political propaganda work aiming to reset the Bolshevik government and build an independent state. All the actions of the revolutionary underground were directed at destroying the plans of the Soviet authorities, not allow the Bolsheviks to settle in Ukraine, supporting the need for the population to fight for their independence. In the years 1944-1945 the OUN intensified its agitational-propaganda activity.

In the underground it was very difficult to establish the effective work of publishers. The lack of sufficient material- technical base led to the publication of a small amount of propaganda production. In 1944-1945, though some magazines or brochures did were published, such as „Юнак”, „За Українську державу” (1944-1945 рр.), „На допомогу пропагандистам” (1944 р.), „Вісник” (1944-1945рр.) ("Yunak", “Za Ukrayinsku Derzhavu " (1944-1945 years), "Na Dopomohu Propayandystam" (1944), "Visnyk" (1944-1945)), still a leaflet was the main printed means of propaganda. Based on the experience of work in previous years, introducing the idea of sabotaging the collective labour in kolhosps, calling for the organization of armed self-defence, the agitators of OUN and UPA had been able to achieve a considerable spread of their ideas among the population exactly through leaflets and brochures.

To draw conclusions about the features of agitational- propagandist work of the OUN we shall analyze the texts of the leaflets distributed by the OUN. In one of these leaflets, titled, “Смерть московсько-большевицьким окупантам України! За Українську Самостійну Соборну Державу!» ("Death to Muscovite-Bolshevik invaders into Ukraine! For the Ukrainian Independent State!") we find the appeal to Ukrainians, calls for continuing the fight even wider than in previous years. Among them there is the following one, “Українські повстанці! Члени ОУН. На Вас лежить найбільша відповідальність. Українська молоде! На тебе чекає Україна!» ("Ukrainian rebels! Members of the OUN. You are the ones at whom the ultimate responsibility lies. Ukrainian youth! Ukraine is waiting for you!"). Trying to conduct propaganda among the Ukrainian population, the UPA leadership in Eastern Galicia published leaflets, which often made emphasis on the historical past, back to the Kyiv Rus and the Cossack era. Except the stories about the historical past of Ukrainians (“Український народе! Понад 30 років ти мучився в російсько-большевицькій тюрмі, мільйони жертв померли з голоду, мільйони жертв замучених і засланих”) ("The people of Ukraine! It is over 30 years that you have been suffering in the Russian-Bolshevik prison, millions of victims have died from starvation, millions of victims are tortured and exiled" [11], in this leaflet the courage of ancestors is emphasized, there is an appeal to the struggle for freedom of thought and speech, for the native language, culture, the leaflet encourages the resistance to police authorities, the fight for prosperity and for labor with no force. The leaflet agitates, «До боротьби! До зброї! Смерть московсько-більшовицьким гнобителям України!». ("To fight! To arms! Death to Muscovite-Bolshevik oppressors of Ukraine!"). The analyzed agitation is aimed for all the segments of the population. In its four pages all the appeals are justified in details.

Another leaflet from May 1944 also reports about the historical past, which took place in a hard struggle for people's own independent state. There is an appeal for unity and for active participating of all the Ukrainians in the struggle for Ukrainian state [12].

The analysed leaflets show that in their texts the authors first attempt to create a general historical and national background as a way to get even closer to those to whom the text is addressed.

After the list of national cultural heritage there sounds an appeal to fight against those who might impinge on the culture, customs and destroying the memory of history.

Many leaflets, besides the emphasis on the historical past, contain calls to fight for an independent democratic state in which everyone can freely farm their own land. For example, in the leaflet, dated May 1944, which begins with the appeal, «Українські селяни!» (“Ukrainian peasants!”) there is an emphasis on the independence from the oppressors and in the future be free to work on their own land, receiving the complete freedom of the material and spiritual development [13]. It reads, «Тільки в своїй власній державі матимемо належну пошану, матимемо всі дані усестороннього розвитку, у своїй державі не будете здавати останнього зерна, а матимете повну свободу на самостійну господарку». ("It is only in our own country where we will have the proper respect, we will have all the possibilities for a comprehensive development, in our own state you will not give away the last grain, but you will have the freedom to your own household"). In the same leaflet there is an appeal to Ukrainian mother and Ukrainian father who raised the worthy successors of the great deed - Svyatoslav the Conqueror, Vladimir the Great, B. Khmelnitskii, Mazepa, Petlyura, Konovalets [13]. The leaflet appeals to peasants, describing the prospect of living in an independent state and awakening the pride of the historical past - the leaflet reminds whose descendants the peasants are and whose principles they must enforce. agitational propaganda ukrainian nationalist

All leaflets contain a notable emphasis on the fact that everyone who supports the fight of OUN and UPA could expect prosperity and wealthy life for themselves and their families.

In addition to hopes for the future prosperous life, in the appeals to the Ukrainian people we can find the agitation to organize self-defensive departments that could resist the occupation authorities. Thus, in the leaflet «Український народе!» (“The people of Ukraine!”) dated January 1944 there is an appeal to the fight against the German and Soviet occupation forces, to the development of the Ukrainian self-defensive forces because these forces will ensure the preservation of the Ukrainian people in the fight against the occupants. The leaflet expresses hope that all the Ukrainian people will arise to fight the invaders [14].

Another leaflet, which is aimed for Ukrainians, explains the nature of Ukrainian self-defence, which in its turn is divided by OUN into active and passive. The passive form of self-defence includes:

- Providing households with signal uprights;

- Constructing the signalling network between the houses (connectors);

- Structuring dugouts - hiding places for people and materials;

- Gathering the able to fight national-conscious people from the towns and villages

The active form of self-defences includes:

- Armed defence of households in case of threat of their destruction;

- The release of prisoners, as well as those to be taken for forced labour;

- Punishment for terror against the population.

This brochure outlines the strategic plans of Ukrainian. We can assume that these leaflets were a way to control people. In preparation for the new Soviet reality, OUN members called for the retention of the Ukrainian national idea, they emphasized that it was needed to be more responsive to the new Bolshevik maneuvers. Their agitation leaflets were to awaken people's faith in the ultimate victory of the UPA and to strengthen the new solidarity of all the people in the fight against the Soviet invaders [15].

In the agitation-propaganda materials OUN also appealed to the Red Army. Calling to reflect on authoritarian regimes, the authors of the leaflet «Бійці і командири Червоної армії» ("The soldiers and commanders of the Red Army") tried to awaken the rebellious spirit of the Red Army. The leaflet inspired thinking over solving the topical issues relating to the beginning the Second World War. The leaflet emphasizes on the shameful actions of the Soviet government, the attention is paid to the concentration camps and the Soviet Union's cooperation with Germany until 1941. The leaflet ends with the calls to go underground for a joint struggle against communism and the Nazi regime [16].

Another leaflet addressed to the Soviet Army, contains a call, «Долой террор в армии! Долой заградотряды! Долой офицерские привилегии! Руководство войском в руки народно-революционным военным комитетам!» ("Down with the terror in the army! Down with the barrier troops (anti-retreat detachments)! Down with the officer privileges! Let the guiding of the army be in the hands of the people's revolutionary military committees!”) Another one says, «Бойцы! Организуйтесь для борьбы с империалистической кликой Сталина! Да здравствует революция!» ("Soldiers! Let's rise for the struggle against imperialist clique of Stalin! Long live the revolution!") [17].

Trying to find support among national minorities, who fought on the side of the Soviet Union, Ukrainian nationalists called for the restoration the sovereignty of states and wanted to awaken the strive of nations for independence. Thus, in the leaflet “До азербайджанців, грузинів, донців, казахів, калмиків, татарів, узбеків і всіх інших добровольців при німецьких частинах» ("To the Azerbaijanis, Georgians, Kazakhs, Kalmyks, Tatars, Uzbeks and all the other volunteers in the German parts") the attention is paid to the patriotism of every nation, the desire to win an independent nation state [18]. There is an appeal to the counteraction to looting, robbery and violence in the territory of Ukraine. The text of the leaflet concludes with the appeal to opposition to the Russian- German conquerors, to creating a single anti-imperial front, to the common struggle for national independence.

Often the leaflets were published in Russian. Obviously, such agitation was aimed not only at the Ukrainian population, but at the Russian-speaking population as well. The appeals in Russian were directed to different segments of the population. In the appeal to the young people Stalin's policy was denounced, «Долой сталинскую политику уничтожения молодежи! Долой контрреволюционера Сталина! Да здравствует молодое революционное поколение - цвет народа и творец народного счастья!» [19]. ("Down with the Stalin's policy of extermination of youth! Down with counterrevolutionary Stalin! Long live the young revolutionary generation - the bloom of the nation and the creator of national happiness").

Another leaflet reads, “Задолженность СССР, вызвана нуждами войны - это продажа трудящихся в ярмо капиталистов. Это после войны - кровавый труд, это дело рук Сталина. Трудящиеся! Подымайтесь на борьбу со сталинской реакцией! Защищайте права, завоёванные революцией 1917 года!» [20]. ("The debt of the USSR, called for war is the sale of the working people into the capitalist yoke. This is a bloody work after the war, it was commited by Stalin. Workers! Rise to the fight against the Stalinist reaction! Protect the rights conquered in 1917 revolution».) OUN also conducted propaganda against forced labor for the Soviet Union: «Громадяни! Боріться із грабежем і вивозом на каторжні роботи! Організовуйте збройну самооборону проти НКВС!» [21] "Citizens! Struggle with robbery and being taken to hard work and servitude! Organise your self-defense against armed NKVD".

Appealing to everyone who does not want to remain silent but wants to express their opinion, the OUN stressed the need for democratic reforms, «Да здравствует свобода слова, печати, собраний, митингов, уличных шествий и демонстраций! Да здравствует право свободного объединения граждан у союзы и организации!» [22]. ("For freedom of speech, press, assembly, marches and demonstrations! For the right of free entering associations and organizations»).

As we can see, all the leaflets are full of information. Appealing to the feelings of the recipients the authors of the leaflets were not only appealing to them, but also depicting the past. In order to make the persuasion more significant, they were using certain stereotypes that were available to the general population. In the leaflets it is often referred to Prince Svyatoslav, Vladimir the Great, Yaroslav the Wise, whose names are associated with glorious pages of the history of the Ukrainian nation: the forming of a powerful state - Kyiv Rus, the flowering of Kyiv Rus. These stereotypes were intended not only to recall that nowadays Ukraine can be powerful and independent, they also reminded of ancient traditions.

As the history of Ukraine for centuries has been associated with the struggle for independence and people will always remember the leaders of this struggle, so the authors of the leaflets often mentioned these names: Bohdan Khmelnitsky, Mazepa, Petlyura. Calling to join the UP A, the authors of the leaflets mentioned Cossacks. Obviously, the UPA fighters had to be associated with the glorious Ukrainian Cossacks, which evoked the feeling of pride.

Often the leaflets mentioned the cultural national heritage which was needed to be kept and multiplied. The importance of the objectives concerning the preservation of cultural heritage was confirmed with the stereotypes of national authorities. Often the name of T. Shevchenko was mentioned to represent the thoughts and the will of the people (in the leaflet «Смерть московсько-большевицьким окупантам» ("Death to Muscovite-Bolshevik invaders") there are the words of Taras Shevchenko, «...поховайте та вставайте, кайдани порвіте і вражою, злою кров'ю волю окропіте»). (“...oh bury me, then rise ye up and break your heavy chains, and water with the tyrans' blood the freedom you have gained” - translated by E.L. Voynich) The negative stereotypes are noted as well, such as the following one: the work in collective farms was associated with the stereotype of slavery. Collective farms were treated as slavery, ruin, it was said that death was better than life at the Stalin's collective farms. Of course, the stereotype of slavery was not limited just to collective farms. The carrier of this stereotype was the NKVD ([enkave'de] - The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs), which became the symbol of imposing Russian culture, religion etc [23]. The stereotypisation of the agitation leaflets was noted by A. Lenartovych as well [10].

Let's note that in addition to the relevant stereotypes in the texts of the leaflets there were submitted the corresponding ideologemes as well. Among the most common positive ideologemes we identified the one of "democracy". The negative ones, such as "Stalinism", "massive repression" and others, were used as well - just for contrast. Such leaflets were the main type of agitation-propaganda activity of the OUN and the UPA.

However, the OUN (b) was conducting the agitation-propaganda work not only by means of printed leaflets, brochures, press, but also through verbal appeals, speaking publicly in front of the people.

Thus, for example, around the village Mokrotyn from 3 to 4 August 1944 UPA was holding a meeting at which the speakers encouraged people to join the UPA to fight the Soviets. Speaking at the meeting, the agitator claimed that those who wish to join the UPA should take a weapon as well as food with them and go to the forest to the place where the UPA is situated. The similar meetings were conducted in the village Smerekiv of Kulykiv region [24].

The historian Ivan Patrylyak affirms that Ukrainian nationalists agitated to join the UPA even Red-Army soldiers. He gives the following example: the soldier of the Red Army Kostyukov who was captured by the UPA was offered to fight against the Soviets. Kostyukov said that on his return he would conduct propaganda work among his Red Army unit and encourage them to move up in arms to the side of Bandera [25].

Conclusions

Hence, the main methods of propaganda and agitation, which were used by Ukrainian nationalists in 1944-1945 were:

1) the distribution of leaflets and brochures;

2) Verbal outreach.

The propagandists always cited specific facts and proved their appeals. The main arguments were the following ones: the necessity of continuing the traditions of the nation, the necessity of preserving the cultural heritage of the nation, the need of doing everything to avoid falling into captivity. In the leaflets aimed for the population of Ukraine there is also an emphasis on the historical past of Ukraine. The leaflets aimed for the soldiers of the Red Army are focused on the Soviet authorities' unacceptable actions: the famine is mentioned, as well as the concentration camps, the cooperation of the USSR and Germany. Verbal outreach was conducted in two ways:

- propaganda and agitation at meetings;

- Individual impact on the recipient.

The main peculiarity of the agitation-propagandist activity of the OUN and UPA against the Soviet Union in 1944-1945 on the territory of East Galicia was that this activity was conducted only underground. However, propaganda and agitation of Ukrainian nationalists was very active and well-organized.

References

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2. Stasiuk O. (2006) Vydavnycha ta propahandystka diyal'nist OUN [Publishing and propaganda activity of the OUN (1941-1953)] / Stasiuk Oleksandra. - Lviv. - 384 p. (in Ukrainian)

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