Everyday life of the rural population of eastern Galicia in July – September of 1914 (according to the materials of the Ukrainian-language press)

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Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk national pedagogical university

Kamianets-Podilskyi Ivan Ohiienko national university

Everyday life of the rural population of eastern Galicia in July - September of 1914 (according to the materials of the Ukrainian-language press)

Volodymyr Starka,

PhD hab. (history), docent, professor at department of history of ukraine, archeology and special branches of historical sciences

Serhii Kopylov,

PhD hab. (history), professor, rector, professor at department of world history

Ternopil

Kamianets-Podilskyi

Abstract

The purpose of the article is to analyze an everyday life of the rural population of Eastern Galicia at the initial stage of World War I based on the materials of the Ukrainian-language press (July - September of 1914). The Research Methodology. The article has been written according to the problem-chronological method, which made it possible to elucidate the core aspects of the issue under analysis in development, logical sequence and interconnection. The analysis of the research material is based on historicism, scientific objectivity and systematicity, which involves the knowledge of historical phenomena taking into account a concrete historical approach, the use of reliable facts, the study of events as interconnected and interdependent parts of large socio-political systems and subsystems in the entire complex of their peculiarities and manifestations. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that, on the basis of the Ukrainian-language press analysis, there has been done a comprehensive special research of Eastern Galicia rural population daily life under the conditions of the initial stage of World War I, as an important factor that influenced the Ukrainian national identity formation significantly. The Conclusion. It should be mentioned that the beginning of the summer of 1914 was met with joyful expectations of a rich harvest by the rural population of Eastern Galicia, which was supposed to improve their material situation. Some pieces of news about the probable beginning of great European war upset the public mood from time to time, but the majority offarmers continued to live by preparing for the harvest. At the beginning of August of 1914, after the announcement of general mobilization and the introduction of martial law, the mood of the rural population changed radically. At the same time during the harvest, people began to make caches of household items and grain in the gardens just in case of war, and some families began to get ready for leaving their homes. Despite the efforts of the Austrian authorities and the Greek Catholic clergy to calm the rural population, people continued to prepare for the worst. It should be noted that life experience did not let the Galician farmers down, because at the end of September of 1914, they had to live under the conditions of the Russian occupation.

Key words: World War I, Eastern Galicia, rural population, everyday life, the Ukrainian-language periodicals.

Анотація

Володимир Старка

доктор історичних наук, доцент, професор кафедри історії України, археології та спеціальних галузей історичних наук Тернопільського національного педагогічного університету імені Володимира Гнатюка, м. Тернопіль,

Сергій Копилов

доктор історичних наук, професор, ректор, професор кафедри всесвітньої історії Кам'янець-Подільського національного університету імені Івана Огієнка, м. Кам'янець-Подільський, Україна

Повсякденне життя сільського населення Східної Галичини у липні-вересні 1914 р. (за матеріалами україномовної преси)

Метою статті є аналіз повсякденного життя сільського населення Східної Галичини на початковому етапі Першої світової війни за матеріалами україномовної преси (липень-вересень 1914 рр.). Методологія дослідження. Архітектоніка статті побудована згідно з проблемно-хронологічним методом, що дало змогу розкрити вузлові аспекти задекларованої теми в розвитку, логічній послідовності та взаємозв'язку. Опрацювання дослідницького матеріалу відбувалося на засадах історизму, наукової об'єктивності й системності, що передбачає пізнання історичних явищ з урахуванням конкретно-історичного підходу, використання достовірних фактів, вивчення поді, як взаємопов'язаних і взаємозалежних частин великих соціально-політичних систем та підсистем у всьому комплексі ознак та виявів. Наукова новизна полягає у тому, що на основі опрацювання матеріалів україномовної преси, здійснено цілісне спеціальне дослідження повсякденного життя сільського населення Східної Галичини в умовах початкового етапу Першої світової війни як важливого чинника, що істотно вплинув на формування української національної ідентичності. Висновки. Можемо констатувати, що початок літа 1914 р. сільське населення Східної Галичини зустрічало радісним очікуванням доброго урожаю, що мав поліпшити його матеріальне становище. Поодинокі вістки про імовірний початок великої європейської війни час від часу збурював суспільні настрої, та більшість аграріїв продовжували жити підготовкою до жнив. Після оголошення загальної мобілізації на запровадження військового стану на початку серпня 1914 р., настрої сільського загалу радикально трансформувалися. Одночасно із збором урожаю, люди про всяк випадок почали робити на городах сховки домашніх речей та зерна, а окремі родини - готуватися покинути свої домівки. Попри намагання австрійської влади та греко-католицького духовенства заспокоїти сільський загал, люди продовжували готуватися до гіршого. Зазначимо, що життєвий досвід не підвів галицьких землеробів - уже наприкінці вересня 1914 р. їм довелося жити в умовах російської займанщини.

Ключові слова: Перша світова війна, Східна Галичина, сільське населення, повсякденне життя, україномовна періодика.

Main part

The Problem Statement. In 2014, with the beginning of the Russian-Ukrainian war, in the Ukrainian society, there was initiated a discussion about what everyday life should be under the conditions of an armed conflict, and how to make it so that it does not affect the national unity radically. The answers to these questions should be sought in our past. World War I had quite a significant impact on an everyday life of the rural population of Eastern Galicia, exacerbating its socio-political, socio-economic, cultural and educational, spiritual aspects as much as possible. Adaptation to life under the conditions of wartime hardship crystallized in the Galician peasantry those national markers that allowed them not to dissolve in the multinational empire of the Habsburgs and, at the same time, to develop certain styles of communication with Transdnieper Ukrainians who were subjects of the Romanov empire. The Ukrainian-language press of the period under analysis is a kind of mirror in which the entire palette of components of an everyday life was reflected, and enabled researchers to reconstruct military everyday life.

The Analysis of Sources and Recent Research. The Ukrainian-language press of the period under analysis is an important source of an everyday life reconstruction. In the columns of newspapers professional journalists and amateur correspondents wrote about facts, events, phenomena that, from their point of view, reflected the spirit of time. The periodical «Dilo» played a significant role in informing the general Ukrainian population of the region about the events that took place and their consequences. Correspondence sent by rural residents of Eastern Galicia to their relatives living in the USA, published on the pages of the American Ukrainian-language magazine «Svoboda», made it possible to be eyewitness of the war.

Visions of World War I events on the territory of Ukraine are represented by numerous scientific works of several generations of the Ukrainian historians. For the first time in the Ukrainian historiography, the scientific understanding of World War I events on the territory of Eastern Galicia was carried out by direct eyewitnesses of the events of that time: M. Hrushevsky, D. Doroshenko, I. Krypiakevych, and K. Levytsky (Hrushevsky, 1967; Doroshenko, 1969; Petrovych, 1915; Levytsky, 1928). Short historical essays of Eastern Galicia past written by the Soviet researchers only outlined the Bolshevik interpretation of the region's history through the prism of the working masses position at the beginning of the 20th century (Kompaniiets, 1960; Khonihsman, 1973).

Since the mid-1990s, the attention of domestic historians to the Ukrainian dimension issue of the Great War has increased. This increase is evidenced by the works of O. Reyent (Reyent, 2003; Reyent, 2004), O. Mazur (Mazur, 1998; Mazur & Pater, 2007), S. Orlyk (Orlyk, 2018; Orlyk & Orlyk, 2019; Orlyk & Mekheda, 2020) and the others. A historical retrospective of the events on the territory of Eastern Galicia based on the publications of the periodical «Dilo» is elucidated in the publication of V. Vyzdryk and K. Kurylyshyn (Vyzdryk & Kurylyshyn, 2020). The results of the latest research on the key issues of the Ukrainian context of World War I are presented in the historical essays «The Great War of 1914-1918 and Ukraine» (Reyent, 2014).

Despite a significant number of scientific works on the history of Eastern Galicia during World War I, the everyday life issue of the region's rural residents during the period mentioned above is without proper analysis.

The purpose of the article is to analyze and elucidate the features of socio-political, socio-economic, cultural and educational aspects of an everyday life of the rural population of Eastern Galicia under the conditions of the initial stage of World War I of 1914-1918.

The Results of the Research. The study of an everyday life of the rural population of Eastern Galicia necessitates the concepts outlining with the help of which the process of scientific knowledge took place, since the concept is a form of thinking that holistically and generally reveals the essential defining features of the studied objects and phenomena. The Large Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Ukrainian Language outlines the definition of the word daily (everyday life) as something ordinary, mundane, which takes place every day (Yeroshenko, 2012, p. 789). In our research, we will adhere to the definition of «everyday life» as forms of behaviour, survival and adaptation strategies used by people under specific socio-political conditions, introduced to the scientific community by Sh. Fitzpatrick (Fitzpatrick, 2008, p. 7).

We use the definition «peasantry» to nominate a social group in which the family is the main social unit, the social status of this community is quite low, it is dominated by a rural way of life and a family household, in which simplicity and respect for traditions are inherent in family and group interests (Orlova, 2002, pp. 291-292).

At the beginning of the summer of 1914, the rural population of Eastern Galicia lived in anticipation of harvesting, which promised a rich harvest. People rejoiced at poured ear of grain, as during the previous few rainy years there was poor harvest, which undermined the well-being of rural families significantly (Pavliuk, 1914, p. 3). At the same time, the news reached the peasant population that all was not well in the world. It is worth noting that the Galician peasants differed from their Dnieper counterparts mentally by a higher level of literacy. Eastern Galician national press served not only as a source of information, but it also taught a Ukrainian-Galician to self-organization, to understanding the social values of the national factor (Hyrych, 2013, p. 48).

At the beginning of July, on the pages of the Lviv periodical «Dilo» there began to be published analytical articles, in which the authors emphasized that the Ukrainian issue was actively discussed in European politics at that time, and the Russian Empire made considerable efforts to divert attention from the Ukrainian issue. Therefore, the authors of the publications called on the inhabitants of the region not to play along with supporters of the Russian tsar (Uhorshchyna, Rosiia i ukrainska sprava, 1914, p. 1).

Public memorial services for the Archduke F. Ferdinand, who was killed on June 28, 1914, which took place in almost every parish of the region, gave rise to rumors about the probable beginning of a great war in Europe, somewhat increased the degree of social tension (Zboriv, 1914, p. 1). The editors of the magazine «Dilo» reacted to such news with a long article, in which they called on the population to refrain from spreading all kinds of alarming news, and also not to succumb to provocative calls of various types of agents (Vid suboty donyni, 1914, p. 2).

Anxiety especially intensified in the villages, when the military units located in the region began to recall their soldiers from the holidays granted during the harvest (Vizvanie zhovniriv, 1914, p. 6).

Therefore, at the end of July, the editors of the periodical «Dilo» frankly informed their readers that the society «stands before the outbreak of war», and warned the Ukrainian public of possible restrictions in the delivery of correspondence and railway transportation (Pered vybukhom viiny, 1914, p. 1).

But the general military mobilization announced by Tsar F. Joseph I on July 31, 1914 «electrified» the rural population of the region mostly (Zahalna mobiliizatsyia, 1914, p. 1).

General mobilization was announced on Friday, and on Saturday, in many villages, men who were to be called up for military service went to church for confession, after which they received a blessing from the priest. In particular, in the village of Rodatychi of Horodotsky district, mobilized men said goodbye to their neighbours, and accompanied by women's crying and lamentation, went to the railway station where they got on the train that transported the military (Lyst z sela Rodatychi, 1915, p. 2).

When the rosaries of the Austrian army stretched through the Galician villages on their way to the Russian border, people brought them bread, milk and other food, hoping that their relatives would also be given something to eat.

Simultaneously with mobilization of men, the official authorities announced mobilization of horses. Farms that rented military horses were ordered to return them to military units. In addition, animals on military registration were subject to mobilization, in accordance with the law of December 21, 1912. In addition, the Lviv Governorate prohibited peasants from taking out horses outside povit (Zahalno-ievropeiska viina, 1914, p. 1; Zaborona v spravi evidenciynyh koney, 1914, p. 6).

The Austrian government undertook to pay monetary compensation to the farms from which the military took away horses and carts, which should at least somehow compensate for the losses of poor peasant families (Vyplata vynahorodzhennia, 1914, p. 6).

Horse drawn transport that was not in the register was used by local authorities to transport military cargo, the so-called «forshpans», and men who were not subject to military mobilization were involved in the construction of defensive fortifications. During the digging of trenches and dugouts, there were cases when fields owners interfered with the work, trying to save their crops. In order to prevent further opposition of peasants, the Lviv Governorship, by its order, called on farmers not to obstruct the military, and promised to pay compensation to those farms that suffered significant damage (V spravi shkid, 1914, p. 6).

Mobilization of men and horses at the height of the harvest season endangered the very harvest. Considering this state of affairs, some communities decided to introduce a kind of sharvarka for harvesting, first of all for those farms whose men were called up for the army (V spravi zhnyv, 1914, p. 7).

Supporting such initiative, presidium of the agricultural society «Silsky Hospodar» asked the members of the cooperative, as well as other farmers, to make every effort to reap the harvest. At the same time, cooperators urged the peasants to take all the harvest from the fields to their barns so that nothing was left in sheaves, since the autumn weather could damage the grains (Silskyi Hospodar za rilnykiv, 1914, p. 6).

On August 6, 1914, the Ministry of Agriculture, together with the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, issued Order No. 200, which obliged the leaders of rural communities to organize commissions to monitor the harvest process. The commission should consist of 3-7 people who permanently lived on the territory of the community. The authors of the document recommended that parish priests, school heads or teachers, community doctors, representatives of agricultural cooperatives or societies, as well as other people who «know their stuff and deserve trust» should be included in such commissions. The members of the commission made sure that the harvest started on time in the community, and also coordinated the distribution of labour force and inventory to those farms that needed them. In case of failure to comply with requirements of a representative of such commission, legislators provided for an administrative penalty (Zabezpechennia robit, 1914, p. 3).

At that time when the majority of the rural community tried to save the harvest, there were people who wanted to make money and profit from human misery. Rumors spread in the villages that paper money would lose its value soon, and only gold and silver coins would remain in circulation. In addition, rumors about devaluation of funds invested in securities and savings banks spread actively. Speculators went around the villages and bought savings books and paper money from uneducated and gullible farmers below their nominal value.

Panic moods were intensified by the practice of some trading establishments, which refused to accept paper money, selling goods only for coins made of non-ferrous metals. The situation was gaining such threatening proportions that the Lviv Governorate called on village elders to calm people in a short time, and merchants who continued to refuse to accept paper money were threatened with arrests and strict criminal liability (Paperovi hroshi, 1914, p. 5; Ostroha proty vynymannia vkladok shchadnykh, 1914, p. 6).

Despite the authorities assurances that the situation was under control, the rural population began to prepare for the worst. Individual families prepared large pits in their gardens, in which they kept chests with clothes and sacks of grain. At the same time, people got ready for a possible leaving. First of all, carts were loaded with the most necessary things, and longterm food was also prepared. Housewives usually baked bread in ovens and smoked poultry that had been slaughtered the day before (Lyst z sela Rodatychi, 1915, p. 2).

In the middle of August of 1914, rumors about the approach of the Russian army began to spread more and more often in the villages of Eastern Galicia. On August 12, 1914, the editorial office of the Lviv Ukrainian-language periodical «Dilo» appealed to its rural readers not to spread rumors, because they «are spread among the less educated strata and cause trouble» (Slovo ostrohy, 1914, p. 6).

In turn, the Greek-Catholic Episcopate, in order to reduce social tension, appealed to the faithful to pray every day, and «to live a pious life, to abstain from all sin, from drunkenness, from human wrongdoing, and from any deed by which you could draw God's displeasure upon yourself». At the same time, the bishops asked village parish priests to support their parishioners in a patriotic mood and peace (Viina i hreko-katolytskyi Epyskopat, 1914, p. 1).

Despite the efforts of the Austro-Hungarian army to stop the offensive of the Russian army, as of mid-September of 1914, the territory of Eastern Galicia was occupied almost completely. Therefore, part of the rural families left for the West following the retreating Austrian troops, and those who could not leave tried to adapt to life under new social and political conditions.

The Conclusion. It should be stated that the beginning of the summer of 1914 was met with joyful expectations of a rich harvest, which was supposed to improve their material situation, by the rural population of Eastern Galicia. Some pieces of news about the probable beginning of the great European war upset the public from time to time, but the majority of farmers continued to live by preparing for the harvest season. At the beginning of August of 1914, after the announcement of general mobilization for the introduction of martial law, the mood of the rural population was transformed radically. At the same time during harvesting, people began to make caches of household items and grain in the gardens just in case, and some families began to prepare to leave their homes. Despite the efforts of the Austrian authorities and the Greek Catholic clergy to calm the rural population, people continued to prepare for the worst. It should be noted that life experience did not fail the Galician farmers, as at the end of September of 1914, they had to live under the conditions of the Russian occupation.

Acknowledgement. We express our sincere gratitude to all members of the editorial board for the advice provided during the preparation of the article for publishing. Special thanks to K. Kurylyshyn, the head of the Ukrainian Studies Department of Vasyl Stefanyk National Scientific Library of Ukraine, for his help during the analysis of the periodical materials.

Funding. The authors received no financial support for publishing the article.

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29. Zahalna mobiliizatsyia. (1914). Zahalna mobiliizatsyia [General Mobilization]. Dilo, 1 serpnia, 1. [in Ukrainian]

30. Zahalno-ievropeiska viina. (1914). Zahalno-ievropeiska viina [Pan-European War]. Dilo, 1 serpnia, 1-2. [in Ukrainian]

31. Zboriv. (1914). Zboriv [Zboriv]. Dilo, 2 lypnia, 4. [in Ukrainian]

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