Military actions of 1914-1915 and their influence and ethnopolitical situation of Ukrainians/Ruthenians in the Carpathian region

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Military actions of 1914-1915 and their influence and ethnopolitical situation of Ukrainians/Ruthenians in the Carpathian region

Petro Kostyuchok, Department of Ethnology and Archeology, V. Stefanyk Precarpathian National University,

Військові дії 1914-1915 рр. та їх вплив та етнополітичне становище українців / русинів Карпатського регіону

Петро Костючок, кафедра етнології і археології ДВНЗ “Прикарпатський національний університет імені В. Стефаника”,

Цель предлагаемой статьи заключается в исследовании влияния военных действий 1914-1915 гг. на этнополитическое положение украинцев/русинов Карпатского региона. Указанные трансформационные процессы видоизменяли первичную социальную, политическую, хозяйственную, культурную и этническую структуры, чему ранее не были посвящены отдельные научные изыскания, следовательно предложенное исследование содержит тематическую новизну. Первая мировая война для украинства стала переломным моментом на пути к коллективной политической мобилизации и определенной групповой этнической идентификации. Источники и методология. В статье на основе широкого круга источников комплексно, в сравнительном ключе, проанализированы этнополитическое положение украинцев / русинов Карпатского региона и охарактеризованы влияние военных действий 1914-1915 гг. на местное население края. Выводы. В публикации показана корреляция влияния фактора войны и соответствующих военных столкновений 1914-1915 гг. в Карпатском регионе на разного рода дискриминации карпатских горцев, как на социально-экономическом, так и на политическом уровнях. В то же время констатируем, что обе воюющие стороны прибегли к преследованиям украинцев / русинов края по политическим и этническим мотивам.

In modern historiography, a significant number of works are devoted to the events of the First World War, its causes, preconditions, and consequences. However, in the context of a comprehensive study of individual vectors of national and political transformation of Ukrainians, most scholars prefer to bypass this area of research interest. A certain exception is the work of Ukrainian researchers I. Baran Baran I. “Horlyts'ka operatsiya: vidstup rosiys'kykh viys'k z Halychyny (kviten' - cherven' 1915 r.)” [Gorlitskaya operation: retreat of Russian troops from Galicia (April - June 1915)], Viys'kova istoriya Halychyny ta Zakarpattya : zb. nauk. prats' Vseukrayins'koyi naukovoyi viys'kovo- istorychnoyi konferentsiyi [Military history of Galicia and Transcarpathia: collection. Science. Proceedings of the All-Ukrainian Scientific Military -Historical Conference], 15 kvitnya 2010 r, L'viv, Kyjiv, 2010, P. 148-152 [in Ukrainian]., V. Haiseniuk Haysenyuk V. Pochatok kintsya. Moskvofily u Velykiy viyni (1914-1918) [The beginning of the end. Moscowphiles in the Great War (1914-1918)], Chernivtsi, Druk Art, 2017, 304 p. [in Ukrainian]., V. Zapolovskiy Zapolovs'kyy V. Bukovyna v ostanniy viyni Avstro-Uhorshchyny 1914-1918 [Bukovyna in the last war of Austria-Hungary 1914-1918], Chernivtsi, Zoloti lytavry, 2003, 284 p. [in Ukrainian]. , O. Mazur and O. Sukhyi⁵ Актуальні питання суспільних наук та історії медицини. Спільний українсько-румунський науковий журнал. (АПСНІМ), 2021, № 2(30), Р. 28-33, M. Markanych Mazur O., Sukhyy O. “Ukrayins'ke naselennya Halychyny na pochatku Pershoyi svitovoyi viyny: represyvni aktsiyi avstriys'koyi vlady” [Ukrainian population of Galicia at the beginning of the First World War: repressive actions of the Austrian authorities], Visnyk Natsional'noho universytetu “L'vivs'ka politekhnika " [Bulletin of the National University “Lviv Polytechnic "], 2000, N 408, Derzhava ta armiya [State and army], P. 73-78 [in Ukrainian]., I. Monolatii Markanych M. Zakarpattya v roky Pershoyi svitovoyi viyny [Transcarpathia during the First World War], Prva svetova vojna v Karpatoch Elso vilaghaboru a Karpatokban [The First World War in the Carpathians], Presov, 2016, P. 44-51 [in Ukrainian].

Monolatiy I. S. “Zakhidnoukrayins'kyy region yak pohranychchya “svoyikh” i “chuzhykh”: dylemy vzayemodiyi” [Western Ukrainian region as a border of “own” and “foreign”: dilemmas of interaction], Karpat-s'kyy kray [Carpathian region], 2018, N 1-2, P. 5-17, [in Ukrainian]., S. Popyk Popyk S. Ukrayintsi v Avstriyi. 1914-1918: Avstriys'ka polityka v ukrayins'komu pytannyu periodu Velykoyi viyny [Ukrainians in Austria. 1914-1918: Austrian policy on the Ukrainian question during the Great War], Chernivtsi: Zoloti lytavry, 1999 [in Ukrainian]., O. Reyent Velyka viyna 1914-1918 rr. i Ukrayina. U 2-kh knyhakh [The Great War of 1914-1918 and Ukraine], Kn. 1: Istorychni narysy, Uporyadn. O. Reyent; Red. kol. V. Smoliy (holova), NAN Ukrayiny, Instytut istoriyi Ukrayiny, Kyyiv, TOV “Vydavnytstvo KLIO”, 2014, 784 p. [in Ukrainian]. and scientists abroad P. Konyi Konya P. Ruska okupacia v Sarisi a Zemplme r. 1914-1915 [Russian occupation in Saris and Zemplin r. 1914-1915], Prva svetova vojna v Karpatoch Elso vilaghaboru a Karpatokban [The First World War in the Carpathians Elso vilaghaboru and Karpatokban], Peter Konya ed., Presov, 2016, P. 75-85 [in Slovak]., P. Schwortz Svorc P. “Z periferie do centra. Rusmsky rol'mk Jurko Lazo pred vstupom do vel'kej politiky (1867-1918)” [From the periphery to the center. Ruthenian farmer Jurko Lazo before entering major politics (1867-1918)], Dejiny [the History], 2017, N 2, P. 84-128 [in Slovak]. i N. Yurchishinova Jurcisinova N. “Zivot obyvatel'ov severovychodneho Slovenska zaciatkom Prvej svetovej vojny (1914 - 1915)” [Life of the inhabitants of northeastern Slovakia at the beginning of the First World War (1914 - 1915)], Dejiny [the History], 2006, N 1, P. 48-61 [in Slovak].. A special place in the historiographical review of this study problems is occupied by rather extreme reactionary and subjectively politicized investigations of Russian researchers V. Vavrik Vavrik V. Genotsid karpato-russkikh moskvofilov - namerenno zamolchannaya tragediya XX veka[The genocide of Carpatho-Russian Muscovites is a deliberately silenced tragedy of the twentieth century], Moskva, Izd. Konservativnogo kluba, 2007, 144 p. [in Slovak]., Yu. Dronova Dronov M. K voprosu o vliyanii Pervoy mirovoy voyny na stanovleniye etnonatsional'noy identichnosti yuzhnokarpatskikh rusinov. Narody Gabsburgskoy monarkhii v 1914-1920 gg.: ot natsional'nykh dvizheniy k sozdaniyu natsional'nykh gosudarstv [To the question of the influence of the First World War on the formation of the ethno-national identity of the South Carpathian Rusyns. The peoples of the Habsburg monarchy in 1914-1920: from national movements to the creation of national states], T. I, Moskva, Kvadriga, 2012, P. 239-248 [in Russian]. and S. Susliak Sulyak S. “Talerhof I Terezin: the forgotten genocide” [Talerhof I Terezin: the forgotten genocide], Rusin [The Rusin], 2008, N 3-4 (13-14), P. 69-75[in Russian]..

The purpose of the article is an attempt to highlight the ethnopolitical situation of Ukrainians / Ruthenians in the Carpathians and to analyse the impact of the military events of 1914-1915. In this context, is focused attention on the analysis of ethnic, social and political levels of local citizen. It is noticed in this publication the main emphasis on the influence of ethnopolitics of the Austrian military movement and Russian occupation administrations on Ukrainians / Ruthenians (Lemkos, Boyks, Hutsuls) territory. So the task of this study is to correlate the unconditional influence of the war factor and the corresponding military clashes of 1914-1915 in the Carpathian region on the socio-political situation of the local population.

During the First World War, the territory of the Ukrainian Carpathians became the scene of some of the fiercest military confrontations on the Eastern Front. According to the Austrian researcher A. Rand, the war “had one of the bloodiest episodes in the Hutsul region” Randa A. Die Bucowina im Weltkrieg, op. cit., P.17.. During the years of military confrontation, the front passed through the territory of the region four times.

At the end of September 1914 four Russian armies crossed the central Carpathians, and at the turn of 1914-1915 entered the valleys of the Uzh, Latoritsa, Rika and Tisa rivers. Panic reigned in Uzhhorod, what is situated 10-15 km away from the front. The same situation was in Pryashev and Mukachevo. It was even worse in Khust, Tyachev, because Russian troops occupied Yasinya, Rakhiv, Velykyi Bychkiv, Maramorosh-Siget Markanych M. “Zakarpattya v roky Pershoyi svitovoyi viyny” [Transcarpathia during the First World War], Prva svetova vojna v Karpatoch Elso vilaghaboru a Karpatokban Persha svitova viyna v Karpatakh [The First World War in the Carpathians Elso vilaghaboru and Karpatokban The First World War in the Carpathians], Presov, 2016, P. 47 [in Ukrainian]..

The Russian army crossed the western Carpathians in the direction of the Presov region (now northeastern Slovakia) in November 1914. In October-November 1914 a massive Russian offensive took place through the Uzhotsky, Duklyansky, and Lupkivsky passes. Until November 23 Snina and Humenne were occupied, and on November 30 has been taken Bardeyev as well. However, the Austro-Hungarian army counterattacked and recaptured the lost territories Kovac D. “Boje v Karpatoch (1914-1915) Prva svetova vojna - boje v Karpatoch” [Fighting in the Carpathians (1914-1915) The First World War - lighting in the Carpathians], Zborn^kprispevkov z medzinarodnej konferencie Humenne [Proceedings of the international conference Humenne], 6. decembra 2007, P. 9 [in Slovak]..

Thus, the 8th Army of General A. Brusylov crossed the valley of the Tsirokha River through the Lupkivsky Pass and occupied the town of Humenne. The Austro-Hungarian troops drove them out of the city forward. The Russians captured Bardeiv to the west, near the Dukla Pass. However, they were displaced from there in early December 1914. In general, fighting continued during the winter of 1914-1915 in the mountains of the region in the Western Carpathians Kirsenko M. V. “Slovats'ka polityka v Pershiy svitoviy viyni” [Slovak policy in the First World War], Naukovi zapysky NaUKMA. Istorychni nauky [Scientific notes of NaUKMA. Historical sciences], 2016, T. 182, P.79 [in Ukrainian]..

All the Carpathian passes of Baran came under the control of the Russian army at the beginning of 1915. In mid-January 1915 have started another offensive, as a result of which Mezhylabortsi and Stropkiv were again occupied in addition to the previous territories. After a long siege on March 22, 1915, the Austro-Hungarian garrison capitulated of the fortress of Przemysl. The Russians launched a new offensive in the Carpathians in the direction of the Ondava and Topli valleys, besieging Bardeiv and Stropkiv. The Austro-Hungarian army faced a real prospect of Russian movement to Budapest and through the Moravian Gate to the Czech Republic Kirsenko M. V. Slovats'ka polityka v Pershiy svitoviy viyni, op. cit., P. 79..

There were hostilities in the Carpathians, what continued till January-April 1915. They ended in May 1915 as a result of a lightning-fast breakthrough by the Austro-Hungarian troops in Gorlice and a subsequent counteroffensive east of the Carpathian Range. Moreover, the Russians lost strategic initiative both in the region and on the Eastern Front in general, because of the Battle of Horlyk Baran I. “Horlyts'ka operatsiya: vidstup rosiys'kykh viys'k z Halychyny (kviten' - cherven' 1915 r.)” [Gorlitskaya operation: retreat of Russian troops from Galicia (April - June 1915)], Viys'kova istoriya Halychyny ta Zakarpattya : zb. nauk. prats' Vseukrayinskoyi naukovoyi viys'kovo-istorychnoyi konferentsiyi [Military history of Galicia and Transcarpathia: collection. Science. Proceedings of the All - Ukrainian Scientific Military-Historical Conference], 15 kvitnya 2010 r. m. L'viv, Kyiv, 2010, P. 150 [in Ukrainian]..

The beginning of the war was met by the local population of the Carpathian region quite ambiguously. Its perception correlated with full support for the Russian offensive (most of the Lemkos and Ruthenians of Presov) to the expression of full loyalty to the Habsburg monarchy (most of the Boyks, Hutsuls, Ruthenians of Transcarpathia). At the same time, each side with certain political expectations perceived the arrival and departure of military opponents. A paradoxical situation has developed among Ukrainians / Ruthenians in the Carpathians. In their mass at the beginning of the war, they were ambivalent, had a fairly low level of political activity and at the same time ethnic / national consciousness, ethnic / national selfidentification has became in its infancy. In fact, the Russians skillfully took advantage of this fact. Thus, under the influence of systematic propaganda, it was carried out by the Russians in the region before the war, so, the local population believed and expected the “liberation” of the Russian brothers from the Habsburgs. At the same time, the rest of the Ukrainians / Ruthenians who took part in the national and political life of Ukrainians in the Danube monarchy (voting in elections, solidarity with the Ukrainian political leadership, participation in cultural and educational events) showed full political support to the Austro-Hungarian authorities.

However, both vectors of perceptions of war and military opponents underwent a significant evolution when it actually affected Carpathian Ukrainians / Ruthenians. Expectations from both sides were overshadowed by the relevant ethnopolitical realities regarding Ukrainians that plagued both empires. In fact, these realities were the ethnopolitics of Russia and Austria-Hungary towards the local population (“Russian betrayal”, “Mazepynism”) and the corresponding changes in the perception of local Ukrainians / Ruthenians of “their- foreigner” during 1914-1915 in political, cultural and educational life in the region. According to Ukrainian scientist I. Stryapko, it was the First World War that became the catalyst that accelerated the process of consolidation of nations, the growth of their national consciousness. Generally, the impact was marked by strengthening the sense of difference to representatives of other nations, who fought side by side or were enemies Stryapko I. Tovarystvo “Prosvita” v hromads'ko-politychnomu ta kul'turnomu zhytti Zakarpattya (1920-1939): monohrafiya [Society “Education” in the socio-political and cultural life of Transcarpathia (1920-1939): monograph], Uzhhorod: Vseukrayins'ke derzhavne vydavnytstvo “Karpaty”, 2012, P.194 [in Ukrainian]..

Lemkivshchyna was a last sraw in confrontation between the two ethnopolitical vectors “one's own and another's”. In the last days before the Russian occupation, the Austro-Hungarian military administrations resorted to unprecedented repression by sympathizers of Russophilia / Moscowphilia. In AugustSeptember 1914 Lemkos Orthodox activists were executed by military courts-martial. This way it was made possible future “Lemkos genocide”. The Russian military offensive in the Lemkivshchyna region and the subsequent occupation of the region by Lemko-Russophiles were perceived as the arrival of the liberators. Thus, delegations from local Lemko communities were sent to pardon and take themselves under the Russian forces care in the Mushyn district. So, the Russian soldiers “were very flattered by our Lemkos peasants, unable to communicate with them, but not knowing what kind of people they were, either Slovaks, or Poles, or Russians”. However, in real, the Russians have been “robbers, who take what fell into their hands” Moskalyi na Lemkakh [Muscovites in Lemko], Dilo [The business], 1915, 6 marta, P. 9 [in Ukrainian]..

“Hungarian Russia”, as D. Doroshenko noted, “appeared as military rear” with the beginning of the war for the Austrian and German troops and bore the entire burden of the terrible, bloody struggle of millions of armies. The Austrian military authorities, especially the Hungarian ones, were ready to see someone's “betrayal” as the cause of all their military failures; they forever suspected the Ukrainian population of spying for Russia, of sympathizing with the Russian army and many hundreds and thousands of Ukrainian peasants paid with their lives for one side to Russian forces and, at the other hand, for Hungarian executioners: this was done equally on the Hungarian and Galician sides of the Carpathians” Doroshenko D. Uhors'ka Ukrayina [Hungarian Ukraine], Uzhhorod, 1992, P. 26 [in Ukrainian].. According to reports from the Hungarian Ministry of the Interior, it is known, that the population of Hungarian Russia provided the Russian army with information on the movement of Austro- Hungarian troops on the southern slopes of the Carpathians, in addition to material assistance in here Vanat I. Narysy novitn'oyi istoriyi ukrayintsiv Skhidnoyi Slovachchyny (1918-1938): monohrafyya [Essays on the recent history of Ukrainians in Eastern Slovakia (1918-1938): monograph], Pryashev, Slovats'ke ped. vyd-vo, 1990, P. 38 [in Ukrainian]..

A similar situation was observed in the Presov region or the western part of Hungarian Russia. The Russian military intervention struck the northern districts of the Sharisky and Zemplinsky counties and their populations in 1914-1915 twice. After the declaration of war, the population of northeastern Slovakia did not show any military sentiment. The exceptions were the so-called Hungarians who wanted to show their allegiance to the throne and serve the governments Jurcisinovв N. Zivot obyvatel'ov severovяchodnйho Slovenska..., op. cit., P. 49..

The second Russian occupation of the Presov region lasted from December 29, 1914 to May 5, 1915. On the territory of the Sharis Committee, Russian troops occupied 83 villages in the Svydnytsky, Bardiyivsky, and Giraltovsky districts. In the northern parts of Zemplin Committee, Russian troops occupied 79 villages in three districts at the time. The Russian army have plundered, robbed and abused the population in the occupied territories. Cattle, pigs, poultry, but also furniture, clothing, bedding and other personal property of the inhabitants became the prey of Russian soldiers Konya P. Ruskв okupвcia v Sarisi a Zemplme r. 1914 - 1915, op. cit., P. 80..

Articles were written about the killings and brutal rapes of Jewish girls and women, among others in occupied Humenni Ibidem, P. 81.

The locals were sympathetic to the Russians, find them as possible liberators from Hungarian oppression. Most Russian soldiers behaved correctly. It is known, that Russian Cossacks visited Zboriv. They contact inhabitans using Russian language and this foregners and local people “spoke a language that Zborov residents understood well” Jurcisinovв N. Zivot obyvatel'ov severovяchodnйho Slovenska..., op. cit., P. 51.. At the beginning, there were only a few cases of looting or robbing. In some villages, local Ruthenians helped Russian troops. In most cases, this assistance was based on information about the deployment of Hungarian troops. Thus, the peasants in Roztoky and Stakchynsky, Roztoky informed the Russians about the movement of Hungarian troops. However, later, according to the chronicle of the village of Venice, “the population greeted them with joy, but not for a long time”. Instead loyalty it began mass thefts and abuses by the Russian side there Ibidem, P. 52..

As a result of military operations, there were entired villages of Bardiyivsky, Svydnytsky, Mezhylabiretsky and Snynsky districts, were destroyed or severely damaged some roads and bridges. According to the noticed information by the Slovak researcher P. Konya 19 villages were completely devastated in the Sharysa Committee and 57 partially destroyed. In the Zemplin Committee 23 villages were completely destroyed as a result of hostilities and robbery and 115 villages were more or less damaged. A total of 2,321 houses and 79 public buildings were destroyed in Sharish, 1,276 houses were destroyed in the Zemplin County, and 6,174 people were injured there. The total amount of losses in the Zemplin County was estimated at 11,280,961 kroons Konya P. Ruskв okupвcia v Sarisi a Zemplme r. 1914 - 1915, op. cit., P. 82..

Separate issue in such fighting could be also quite frequent revisions. It was noticed, that they were characteristic of both warring parties. Forced requisitions, carried out either by official local authorities or by Russian forces, caused outrage during the war Coranic. Thus, in the chronicle of the Dovhi Luky and Bardiev districts; it is fixed that “the Austro- Hungarian army came, the Russian army came and took from the population everything that could be taken: grain, cattle, pigs and most importantly chickens and geese” Jurcisinovв N. Zivot obyvatel'ov severovяchodnйho Slovenska., op. cit., P. 52..

After the withdrawal of Russian troops, the Hungarian authorities began repression against anyone suspected of sympathizing with the idea of Slavic reciprocity and Russophilia. The pastor of Beherov M. Artim was accused and imprisoned, as well as some peasants from Lviv, Grabsky, Maltsov Ibidem, P. 53, 55.. In January 1915 all the inhabitants of the village of Havayi were deported to Hungary, where they worked on the manors. A total quantity of villages were 36, where locals have been evacuated from Sharis County. There are only two elders left in Gabur. Instead, the village of N. Polyanka was burned in front of its inhabitants. Zboriv, V. Olshava, Smilno and Komarnyk were also destroyed, Gabura and Chabalovtsi were almost completely burned Ibidem, P. 55..

Another social and political situation was noticed in Boykivshchyna and Hutsulshchyna, which found themselves in the rear of the Russian army after the occupation in September- October 1914. Quite often the military did not understand or perceive the local population. That is why Russian officers called the local population in the Old Sambir region not “Russian” but “Russins” Staryy Sambir pid rosiys'kym panuvannyam Moskovs'ka okupatsiya Halychyny 1914-1917 rr. u svidchennyakh ochevydtsiv [Old Sam-bir under Russian rule Moscow occupation of Galicia 1914-1917 in eyewitness accounts], L'viv, 2018, P. 491 [in Ukrainian]. The Russian occupative administration began arresting Ukrainians / Ruthenians in Boykivshchyna and Hutsulshchyna villages. Moreover, all cultural and educational societies, business unions, educational institutions and most of the Greek Catholic churches were closed. So, in Boykivshchyna all members of “Prosvita” and “Sich” were scribbled, some of them were taken to Siberia” Ibidem, P. 492..

At the same time, Boykivshchyna and Hutsulshchyna had a much higher level of state loyalty to Austria-Hungary, in contrast to Lemkivshchyna. In our opinion, that was a consequence of the initial politicization and ethnicization of the local population in the pre-war years. In fact, the activities of political and party cells, the opening of societies, schools and the celebration of anniversaries have had a significant impact on the correlation of the ethnic / national consciousness of the local people. It is fixed also that, “not a single traitor was found there, but disgustingly dozens voted for leaders, patrols for our people, delivered them food, hid military patrols, exposing themselves and their relatives to the greatest danger, fed our prisoners and wounded. They did all that only in the consciousness that they are «Ukrainians»”, - information was taken in Perehinsk, Dolyna district Ukrayins'ke selo v chasyi viyny [Ukrainian village during the war], Dilo [The business], 1915, 20 zhovtnya, P. 3 [in Ukrainian]..

A separate aspect of showing loyalty to the Habsburg monarchy was the mass participation of Hutsuls and Boyks in the general military mobilization. They deliberately tried to fulfill their duty to their homeland. An important aspect of their patriotism was their participation in the Ukrainian Sich Rifles and other military formations, including the “Hutsul Kurin'”. Sich Rifles, most of whom were Carpathian mountaineers, showed a high level of state and national patriotism during the war. Thus, in the battles in Boykivshchyna, in particular for Makivka on April 29 - May 2, 1915, they were distinguished by heroism and intransigence. On this occasion, the commander of the Austrian 55th Division, General Fleischmann, addressed the Sich Rifles in his order: “Ukrainians! ... everyone should be proud to belong to your corps” Baran I. Horlyts'ka operatsiya: vidstup rosiys'kykh viys'k z Halychyny..., op. cit., P. 150.. At the same time, the local population of Boykivshchyna supported Sich Rifles in every possible way. One of eyewitness mentioned Boyko villages, where “we are understood, and we are gladly hovering among ourselves” Ukrayins'ke selo v chasyi viyny., op. cit., P. 3..

At the same time, the Russian occupation put a negative effect on the population of Eastern Boykivshchyna. According to the report of the Russian non-commissioned officer Furman, all the Jews were moved out during a detour of the front on April 14, 1915 in the area “from Bogorodchany and villages located near the positions, the military evicted all Jews without exception”, also evicted from Liszt Jewish men to Halych and Ternopil. In the Staro-Lysets village was hanged by the Austrians (by the Rusyn I. Zavidna) for the fact that there were 25 Austrian hussars in the hut, and he set it on fire and all burned down. And in the village Rusivna (Rozsilna) was hanged, before that his property was burned out Tsentral'nyy derzhavnyy istorychnyy arkhiv u m. Kyievi (TSDIAUK) [Central State Historical Archive in Kyiv], f. 365, op.1, spr. 186, ark.7-8 [in Ukrainian]..

A similar situation was ascertained in the Western Boykivshchyna. Thus, a non-commissioned officer of the gendarmerie in Sambir County Khmysh on March 9, 1915 noted, that in the Old Sambir region Hungarians hung and cut people only because they are Russians TSDIAUK, f. 365, op. 2, spr. 102, ark. 128 [in Ukrainian]..

In the Hutsul region, were actively carried out mass executions during 1914 and early 1915. It is notorious to apply an order to the Hungarian army to “imprison 40 Ruthenians”, of whom 20 were released and 20 were hanged. As S. Pap mentions, “it didn't matter who was hanged in public” Pap S. Istoriya Zakarpattya [History of Transcarpathia], Ivano-Frankivs'k, Nova Zorya, 2003, T. III, P. 605 [in Ukrainian].. Thus, a special role was played by the military court of the 52nd Division of the Austro-Hungarian Army in the deployment of mass executions in the Transcarpathian Hutsulia region. Thus, in October 1914, 150 peasants were arrested in one week in Yasin, of which 65 were executed. During the same period, five people were executed in Verkhnyaya Apsha and Velykyi Bychkiv Derzharkhiv Zakarpafs'koyi oblasti [State Archives of the Transcarpathian region], f. 63, op. 2, spr.308, ark. 34, 43 [in Ukrainian].

A similar situation was observed in Bukovyna and Halych Hutsulia regions. An eyewitness of the events T. Galip mentioned in his memoirs the large crowd of Hutsuls, who were escorted by Honveds (Hungarian soldiers)... all of them were “traitors” who were sent to the tribunal. Among those arrested were mostly old people, women and children Halip T. “Z moyikh spomyniv” [From my memories], Bukovyns'kyy zhurnal [Bukovynian magazine], 1994, Ch. 1-2, P. 178-179 [in Ukrainian].. An Austrian court-martial sentenced two Ukrainians to death in January 1915, in Vyzhnytsia. In Vyzhnechchyna, watchman Lakinger murdered 41 peasants, justifying that all Ukrainian peasants were traitors Derzharkhiv Chernivets'koyi oblasti [State Archives of Chernivtsi region], f. 283, op. 1, spr. 5, ark. 10-11 [in Ukrainian]..

It have been considered arrests, trials, and executions of persons who were marked as pro-Russian in September-October 1914, they were also carried out in the Galician Hutsul region. For example, Judge Gulu was arrested in Kosiv on charges of Russophilism and several Hutsuls were arrested in Kryvyi Rih for espionage “Z zhyttya Hutsul'shchyny” [The life of the Hutsul region], Dilo [The business], 1915, 15 maya [in Old Ukrainian]; “Rosiys'ka hospodarka na Hutsul'shchyni” [Russian economy on Hutsul'shchyna], Dilo [The business],1915, 24 ts'vitnya [in Old Ukrainian].. The number of accusations of anti-state activities of Ukrainian peasants by the Austro-Hungarian military authorities increased significantly with the approach of Russian troops. The search for Russophiles and spies turned into mass executions and mockery of Hutsuls. M. Matviyiv-Melnyk, a native of Utoropiv, mentioned such memories “the howling of dogs, the roar of cattle and the cries of tortured people” and “thirteen hangers on hornbeams and willows along the Kosiv road” Hrabovets'kyi V. Utoropy: storinky istoriyi. Do 630-richchya pys'movoyi z-hadky [Utoropy: pages of history. To the 630th anniversary of the written mention], Ivano-Frankivs'k, Nova Zorya, 1997, P. 93 [in Old Ukrainian].. Based on the memories of his parents,

P. Bilenchuk said that “during the retreat, the Austrian troops began to accuse the inhabitants of Utoropy of Muscoviteism, he was hanged. Ilko Koshevka, the other 10 people were taken by the Austrians and hanged in the village of Pistina, near the forest” Ibidem, P. 92.. After the return of Austro-Hungarian troops in 1915, the Utopians suffered again. The Austrians burned 180 houses with all the outbuildings in this village, and also hanged 10 civilians for the fact that they, being Ruthenians, had contact with Russian troops and all the property of the inhabitants was looted as well TSDIAUK, f. 365 op. 1 spr. 235 ark. 8 [in Ukrainian]..

The Austrian military intelligence conducted a study on the attitude of the Hutsuls to the state power of the Hutsul village of Tatarova and the suburbs of Pidlesniow, Nadvirna County in May 1915. It was found, that during the war, Hutsuls were always loyal to the Austrian government Tsentral'nyy derzhavnyy istorychnyy arkhiv Ukrayiny u m. L'vovi [Central State Historical Archive of Ukraine in Lviv], f. 146, op. 8, spr. 1894, ark. 1-7 [in Ukrainian]..

Thus, the First World War became a rubicon between tradition and modernity in the worldview of the Ukrainian peasantry. The struggle for stability and innovation in its consciousness, the break of ingrained archaic thinking and the introduction of new values, especially national and political levels matches First World War in national worldview with a bright color of rennovation. In fact, as noted by the Ukrainian historian J. Hrytsak, the First World War accelerated the process “from peasants to nation”, in any way. Most of the peasants, mobilized to the front, did not have a clear idea of what kind of homeland they had to lay down their lives for. Most often, they did not identify themselves with a particular nation, but with the region instead, in which they lived before the mobilization. The war has “nationalized” them at the very end Hrytsak Ya. Ukrayins'ka revolyutsiya 1914-1923: novi interpretatsiyi [Ukrainian Revolution, 1914-1923: new interpretations], [in Ukrainian]..

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