Military education in the army of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815)

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Military education in the army of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815)

Liudmyla Petryshyn, Inna Demuz

Liudmyla Petryshyn PhD hab. (Education), Associate Professor, Department of Social Pedagogy and Social Work of Ternopol Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University, Ternopol, Ukraine

Inna Demuz PhD hab. (History), Associate Professor, Chief Researcher of the Department of scientific and methodical work and abstracting, National Scientific Agricultural Library of the National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine (Kyiv), Kyiv

Abstract. The purpose of the research consists in, primarily, studying the historical and educational aspects of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw during 1807 - 1815; outlining the directions of a military education; conducting a historical and pedagogical analysis of the military education process aimed at forming a soldier-citizen's patriotism. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism, systematization, scientificity, verification, an authorial objectivity, a moderate narrative constructivism, an anthropological approach, as well as special historical methods (historical genetic, historical typological, historical systemic). The scientific novelty consists in the fact that for the first time in the Ukrainian historical science the forms and content of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw of1807 - 1815 (in Polish - Ksigstwo Warszawskie) have been analyzed; the directions of a military education have been determined; the historical and educational aspects of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw of1807 -1815 have been specified. The Conclusions. The system of education in a civil and military schooling during the period of the Duchy of Warsaw was entirely national. In general, as a result of educational work based on the best traditions of T. Kosciuszko uprising and the functioning of the legions, the armedforces became a school of patriotism, which made itpossible to understand that the Duchy of Warsaw providedfreedom of the personality and the opportunity to pursue a military career as a citizen-soldier. The educational activities focused on the awakening of a sincere patriotism and a national consciousness in young people, the formation of love of the native language, history, Polish customs and traditions, and national affiliation. The study of historical and educational aspects ofa military education provides an opportunity to state that the army of the Duchy of Warsaw, according to the personnel and organizational concept, was a national army that adhered to the democratic direction of education, which formed military, national and social virtues, which in its turn created a positive image of the army of the Duchy of Warsaw in the society. Internal relations in the Polish army were based on respect for historical victories in the past, which in turn determined the process of a military education aimed at forming a soldier-citizen-statesman, deeply patriotic, nationally conscious and loyal to his country. It is important that during this period two directions of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw were singled out at the same time: the first direction promoted the ideas of an absolute discipline, complete obedience and order; the second direction of a military education advocated the continuation of the soldiers education in the traditions of T. Kosciuszko and legionnaires.

Keywords: the Duchy of Warsaw, a military education, directions of a military education, general military training, patriotism, soldier-citizen.

Людмила ПЕТРИШИН докторка педагогічних наук, доцентка, професорка кафедри соціальної педагогіки та соціальної роботи Тернопільського національного педагогічного університету імені Володимира Гнатюка, м. Тернопіль, Україна. Інна ДЕМУЗ докторка історичних наук, доцентка, головний науковий співробітник відділу науково-методичної роботи та реферування Національної наукової сільськогосподарської бібліотеки НААН (м. Київ), м. Київ, Україна

ВІЙСЬКОВЕ ВИХОВАННЯ В АРМІЇВАРШАВСЬКОГО ГЕРЦОГСТВА (1807 - 1815)

Анотація. Мета дослідження полягає насамперед у дослідженні історичних та освітніх аспектів військового виховання у Варшавському герцогстві 1807-1815 рр., окресленні напрямів військового виховання, історико-педагогічному аналізі процесу військового виховання, спрямованого на формування патріотизму солдата-громадянина. Методологія дослідження опирається на принципи історизму, системності, науковості, верифікації, авторської об'єктивності, поміркованого наративного конструктивізму, антропологічний підхід, а також використання спеціально-історичних (історико-гене- тичний, історико-типологічний, історико-системний) методів. Наукова новизна полягає у тому, що вперше в українській історичній науці проаналізовано форми та зміст військового виховання у Варшавському герцогстві 1807-1815рр., визначено напрями військового виховання та конкретизовано історичні та освітні аспекти військового виховання в Варшавському герцогстві 1807-1815рр. Висновки. Система освіти у цивільному і військовому шкільництві доби Варшавського герцогства мала цілковито національний характер. Загалом, у результаті проведеної освітньо-виховної роботи, що базувалася на кращих традиціях Костюшкіського повстання й функціонування легіонів, збройні сили ставали школою патріотизму, яка давала змогу зрозуміти, що Варшавське герцогство забезпечувало свободу особистості та можливість зреалізувати військову кар'єру солдата-громадянина. В освітньо-виховній діяльності зосереджували увагу на пробудженні в молоді щирого патріотизму й національної свідомості, формування любові до рідної мови, історії, польських звичаїв і традицій, національної приналежності. Дослідження історичних та освітніх аспектів військового виховання надає підставу констатувати, що армія Варшавського герцогства, відповідно до кадрово-організаційної концепції, була національною, дотримувалася демократичного напряму виховання, який формував військові, національні й соціальні чесноти, що створювало позитивний імідж армії Варшавського герцогства у суспільстві. Внутрішні стосунки у польській армії базувалися на повазі до історичних звитягу минулому, що, зі свого боку, визначало процес військового виховання, націленого на формування солдата-грома- дянина-державотворця, глибоко патріотичного, національно свідомого та відданого своїй державі. Вагомим є те, що у цей період виокремилися два напрями військового виховання у Варшавському герцогстві: перший пропагував ідеї абсолютної дисципліни, повної покори і порядку, другий відстоював продовження виховання солдатів у традиціях Т. Костюшка та легіонерів.

Ключові слова: Варшавське герцогство, військове виховання, напрями військового виховання, загальновійськове навчання, патріотизм, солдат-громадянин.

The Problem Statement

Taking into account a constant scientific historiographical interest of the Ukrainian scholars in the problem of creating a new state on the map of Europe - the Duchy of Warsaw, nowadays, it becomes urgent to expand the scope of the research, paying attention to the fact that the foundations of its creation were laid by Napoleon in 1806. It was at that time when the Saxon Elector (in German - Kurfurst) received the title of King from the French Emperor. Grand Duke of Warsaw, Frederick Augustus II was crowned as Augustus III. This fact and the previously concluded the Rhine Alliance subordinated the Saxon kingdom directly to Napoleon. After the foundation of the Duchy of Warsaw in Warsaw in 1807, its constitutional status was published. In this context, the phenomenon of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw during 1807 - 1815 is of a special research interest. The importance of this topic is due to the identity of the new state on the map of Europe - the Duchy of Warsaw, and a significant (and still insufficiently studied) process of a military education aimed at forming patriotism of a soldier-citizen-statesman. Despite the steadily growing dynamics of the Ukrainian Polonist studies, this topic has so far attracted little attention of the Ukrainian scholars.

The Analysis of Recent Researches. Nowadays, in the Ukrainian historical science the topic of historical and educational features of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw during 1807 - 1815 is poorly studied. It is clear that this problem was the subject of the research, primarily, of the Polish historians, who mostly paid attention to the liberation struggle of the Napoleonic Wars and the process of a national formation of the Polish ethnos during the era of “Napoleonic Poland” of the Duchy of Warsaw. In the context of the study of this topic, the researches of the Ukrainian scholars, which cover the fundamental historical and social aspects of the Polish statehood and the formation and activities of the Duchy of Warsaw, are of considerable interest, in particular: Adadurov V (Polish Question in French-Austrian Relations of the Napoleonic Wars Era) (Adadurov, 1997), Vandal A. (Napoleon and Alexander I. The Fran- co-Russian Union during the First Empire) (Vandal, 1995), Hai-Nyzhnyk P., Zakharchuk O. (Slavic Lands of Central and Southern Europe in the Diplomacy of Napoleon Bonaparte (1805 - 1811)) (Hai-Nyzhnyk & Zakharchuk, 2011), Zakharchuk O. (Polish Question in the Diplomacy of Napoleonic France), Dylionhova H. (History of Poland 1795 - 1990) (Dylionhova, 2007), Zashkilnyak L. and Kiykun M. (History of Poland: From the Ancient Times to the Present Day) (Zashkilnyak & Kiykun, 2002), Usenko P. (the Dutchy of Warsaw) (Usenko, 2003), Ishchenko Zh. (Polish Aspect in Napoleon's Foreign Policy (1807 - 1812). A prominent place in the study of many aspects of our topic belongs to the Polish historiography. However, in the XIX th century the Polish issue in the relations of the great powers was assessed in the Polish historiography almost exclusively through the interpretation of the history of the Polish nation-formation process. As a result, the researchers focused, primarily, on the liberation struggle of the Napoleonic Wars epoch, which stimulated the process of a national self-awareness of the Polish ethnic group, as well as the history of “Napoleonic Poland” during the Duchy of Warsaw. It should be noted that Academician Vandal A. defined the policy of the Emperor Napoleon on Slavism precisely by the role of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807), in this context, he stated reasonably: “From the very beginning, Napoleon devised a coherent system. His first thought was to create in the territory of Germany, along its entire length, from the Rhine to the Vistula, a number of countries that would depend on France ... finally, at the end of this continuous line - the Grand Duchy of Warsaw - from the Polish provinces of Prussia” (Vandal, 1995, p. 112).

The fundamental works of the Polish historians of the period under study - Gorzycki W. (Gorzycki, 1921), Skarbek F. (Skarbek, 1897), Prdzynski I. (Prdzynski, 1894), Askenazy S. (Askenazy, 1919), Handelsman M. (Handelsman, 1911), Sobocinski W. (Sobocinski, 1964), Skalkowski A. (Skalkowski, 1908), Lopacinski W. (Lopacinski, 1917), Lipinski J., Kukulski Z. (Lipinski & Kukulski, 1931), Helpern I. (Helpern, 1919), Gembarzewski B., Mankowski A. (Gembarzewski & Mankowski, 1917) - are also essential for elucidating the research topic. It should be noted that in the context of the analyzed problem the researches of a historian and archeographer A. Skalkowski are important (Skalkowski, 1908). No less scientific are the works of M. Handelsman, who, on the basis of the archeological databases, published the reports of the French residents in Warsaw (Handelsman, 1911). In general, the outlined topic was the object of the research attention of foreign (mostly Polish) scholars, but the research topic has not yet fully entered the discussion field of the Ukrainian Polish studies.

The purpose of the research consists in, primarily, studying the historical and educational aspects of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw during 1807 - 1815; outlining the directions of a military education; conducting a historical and pedagogical analysis of the military education process aimed at forming a soldier-citizen's patriotism.

The Statement of the Basic Material

As a result of France's victory over the combined Prussian-Russian forces near Ilawa and Friedland, the Peace of Tilsit was signed (July 7, 1807), strengthening France's position in Central and Eastern Europe. One of the provisions of the Peace Treaty was the formation of the Polish lands, which belonged to Prussia, formally independent (Sejm, government, army) of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807 - 1815) (Askenazy, 1919). According to Napoleon's plan, the Duchy was to become a raw material and political military reserve for future military campaigns in France.

Despite its small territory, the Duchy of Warsaw was one of the mainstays of Napoleonic hegemony in Europe. The guarantor of the integrity and sovereignty protection of the Duchy of Warsaw was the regular armed forces organized with great haste by Prince Jozef Poniatowski, the nephew of the last Polish monarch. At the beginning of 1807 they numbered about 30 thousand soldiers. During its short history, the Duchy's troops experienced several waves of volunteers and recruits influx, which led to the growth of the officer corps. During 1806 - 1807, in addition to legionnaires returning “from Italian to Polish lands”, there were former officers of the Commonwealth Army, who joined the ranks at the call of Jozef Poniatowski. There was no shortage of officers from the French POW (prisoner of war) camps. There was, after all, noble and bourgeois youth, full of patriotic zeal, who en masse joined the cavalry and artillery units. The hostilities weakened discipline among secondary school students. Some of the youth, according to the will of their parents, returned home temporarily, while the others, wishing to serve the country, joined the Polish army. The former rector of Warsaw lyceum recalled that 200 students stopped studying in the lyceum, of whom “some, motivated by the spirit of civic diligence, devoted themselves to serving to do good to the country both in the army and in civilian life, while the others went home to help their parents or relatives about household” (Prdzynski, 1894, p. 10).

The mass entry of schoolchildren into the organized Polish army and doing work in various organs of government administration seriously worried the Education Chamber, the governing educational body of the Duchy of Warsaw. At the request of the Chamber, the Provisional Government of the newly formed state by a directive of April 30, 1807, prohibited the recruitment and admission of secondary school students to the National Guard (Prdzynski I., 1894, p. 12). However, the organizers of the Polish Armed Forces of the Duchy of Warsaw believed that the army should be national. The army included representatives of all social classes of the society, called on the principles of recruitment (mobilization). In addition, the army was to be aimed at forming a citizen-soldier's patriotism.

It should be noted that it was during that period - July 22, 1807, that the Constitutional Act of the Duchy of Warsaw came into force, which determined the nature and goals of the armed forces. It was stated in Article 79 of the law: “The armed forces will consist of 30,000 souls of various kinds of soldiers ready to fight, not taking into account the National Guards” (Dziennik Praw Ksistwa Warszawskiego, 1922, p. 35). In addition, it should be noted that at that time, the “Regulations for conscription in the Duchy of Warsaw”, published as a Royal Decree on May 9, 1808, were the main document governing the rules of conscription. In accordance with the principles set out in the Regulations, a register of all men suitable for a military service was established: persons between the ages of 20 and 50. District military commissions, known as the Councils of the Elected, were established to conduct effectively the annual spring conscription. Duration of military service - 6 years. Senior officials and the clergy were exempted from it. At the motivated request of the directorate of the Chamber of Public Education (Prdzynski, 1894), approved by the head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, teachers and scientific teaching staff of higher education institutions were dismissed from the conscription.

The dominant type of the Duchy's armed forces was the regular army, which at the peak of its development (in 1812 - the march on Moscow) had more than 100 000 men and had the support of the general noble homeguard, as well as the national guards of individual voivodships. These absolutely incredible efforts of the people for the needs of the war were conditioned by the deep belief of the society that the army would be the factor that would bring the desired freedom to Poland. The example of the allies of the uprising of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the legionaries of Jan Henryk Dombrowski and General Karol Kniazewicz was important.

During the period of the Duchy of Warsaw, there took place Napoleon Bonaparte's turn from the republican to imperialist ideas in French politics. It should be noted that during this period, two directions of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw were singled out at the same time. The representatives of the first direction under the leadership of Prince Jozef Poniatowski were supporters of the idea of an absolute discipline, complete obedience of the subordinate to the leader. Prince Jozef Poniatowski did not attach too much importance to the methods by which soldiers were instilled with a sense of discipline, but he preferred the principle of authorship of the Florentine Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 - 1527), who stated that “the goal justifies the means”. The representatives of the second direction of a military education, led by the former commander of the Polish legions in Italy, General Jan Henryk Dombrowski, advocated firmly for the continued education of soldiers in the traditions of Tadeusz Kosciuszko and legionnaires. Professor Stanislaw Herbst, an expert in the field of military affairs during the Duchy of Warsaw, wrote: “Poniatowski tried to defend the traditional discipline of the club together with Dombrowski, even during the uprising with his witty user, and now a fierce opponent”. “But when the Prince became convinced that soldiers could be educated without this violent means, he became an excellent teacher” (CAHR, sygn. 3132, p. 179).

It should be noted that the army of the Duchy of Warsaw, according to the personnel and organizational conception, was a national army that adhered to the democratic direction of education. Each officer was required to subscribe to the mainstream daily press, which reported on the policies of the French and Polish authorities and on military success. This information was shared by officers at meetings with their subordinates. The importance of the press as a formation factor of a public opinion, patriotism and morale of the Polish soldiers reflects a fragment of the instruction of the Chief Intendant of the Duchy of Warsaw - General Alexander Ruzhnitsky (1774 - 1849) in May 1808 on the organization of libraries, reading and subscribing to magazines in military units. In Paragraph 49 of the above-mentioned instruction it was stated: “Each officer must subscribe to the Warsaw National Newspaper, and the regimental commander must additionally subscribe to the daily bulletin of the garrison in which he is stationed, as well as the “Universal Monitor”, the official journal of the French Empire. Officers will inform their subordinates about public foreign and state news, so that the garrisons scattered throughout the provinces do not remain alooffrom the news of various cases in which the current period is rich and in which our homeland begins to regain its importance” (CAHR, sygn. 3132, p. 198).

The internal relations in the Polish army were based on respect for historical victories in the past, which in turn determined the process of a military education aimed at forming a soldier-citizen-statesman, deeply patriotic, aware of the goals of his participation in the war. The army of the Dutchy of Warsaw was staffed by the voluntary recruitment of nationally conscious, patriotic soldiers. The soldiers of this army came from ordinary peasants families, who mostly went to the army reluctantly, did not understand how to fight, how their army differed from the occupants' armies. The rapid organization of the army, the call for a military service of soldiers without prior training led to offenses, crimes and desertion. The worst state of discipline was recorded during the first months of the organization and development of the Duchy of Warsaw. Taking into account the urgent need to stop the negative tendencies in disciplinary relations, from the first days the soldiers had meetings with officers, who pointed out to them the goals and objectives of the armed forces of the Duchy of Warsaw, the need to participate in the struggle to restore the independence of the Motherland, whose part they were. The highest educational goals were set for the soldiers of the Polish army of the Duchy of Warsaw, characteristic not only of the army, but also of citizens in a military uniform. During the process of learning, they tried to awaken the desire, passion for service and a sense of a national identity. It was about an honourable nature of the service, about gratitude to the Motherland that awaits them, about the prospects of raising ranks of soldiers and soldierly glory (Sobocinski, 1964; Skarbek, 1897).

As a result of the educational work based on the best traditions of Kosciuszko Uprising and the legions functioning, the armed forces became a recruit school of patriotism, which made it possible to understand that the Duchy of Warsaw provided recruits with individual freedom, the opportunity to pursue a military career, to receive a plot of land for cultivation after the end of service, and for honoured veterans - government positions.

It should be noted that the priority objective was the general military training of soldiers in the army of the Duchy of Warsaw. Mainly, the training process was based on the French orders for a military service. At the same time, the Polish Army rules, regulations, instructions and orders were widely used, regulating the basics of a practical training and division of units. These rules included, in particular, the “Rules for Infantry of the Polish Army” (1806, the author - Captain Jozef Dziewiecki) and “Rules of Drills and Maneuvers” (elaborated by Lieutenant Colonel Tsiprian Godebski). Training courses and staff exercises were organized for officers, which increased their team skills. The training was intensified after the formation of the General Headquarters, which included the most experienced senior officers of various services types, performing the functions of military inspectors: the infantry inspector was General Stanislaw Fischer, the inspector for driving was General Alexander Rozhnetsky, and the artillery inspector was General Jan Pelletier (1772 - 1862) (Sobocinski, 1964; Skar- bek,1878; Skarbek,1897). The appointment of inspectors was important for the unified and systematic training of soldiers, which gradually increased, thus contributing to the effectiveness of the army units of the Duchy of Warsaw. Undoubtedly, these achievements, combined with deep patriotism and understanding of difficult times, made the soldier of that time the most valuable and most loyal ally of France.

The basic principles of education for the army of the Duchy of Warsaw were elaborated by Colonel Tsiprian Godebsky, an experienced officer of the Legion in 1807 at the order of General Prince Jozef Poniatowski, presenting them in two works: “Collection of Principles of Military Life” and “Handy Diary for Non-commissioned Officers and Soldiers” (SAHR (ARSKW), sek. V, vol. 292, nr. 13, 14). In the Introduction to the Diary we read: “The intention of the government is to introduce into the whole Army a gradual subordination, which, without diminishing its strength, would be slow and paternal; which would be based on constant rules andjustice, would destroy all arbitrariness and oppression, keeping everyone in a strict compliance with his responsibilities. He wants the soldier to be treated by the greatest humanity. Let none of them know injustice and offense; let him find in his elders sensitive and charitable leaders, who would be able to choose the punishment for crimes in accordance with the law” (Prdzynski, 1894, p. 14).

During the process of education, in addition to the military virtues, social virtues were tried to be formed, which created a positive image of the army in the society, “which gave love and respect for the population” (CAHR, Archiwum publiczne Potockich, sygn. 265, vol. 2, 1807). Tsiprian Godebsky in the “Pocket Diary” outlined the basic moral principles and norms of a soldier's life, the formation of which should be paid special attention during the process of training soldiers: “Rightness and decency, politeness, honesty in behaviour and language, sobriety, good faith and diligence, respect for people and property” (CAHR, Archiwum publiczne Potockich, sygn. 265, vol. 2, 1807, p. 64).

We state that the historical and educational aspects of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw during 1807 - 1815 were formed on the historical heritage, democratic principles of a military and moral education, the formation of social virtues, which were progressive at that time. In particular, the democratic principles were aimed at developing a positive attitude to a military service, patriotism, civic initiative, - for this served a wide range of forms and methods of training, ranging from relationships between leaders and subordinates through disciplinary practice, military ceremonies, training, educational activities and ending with national symbols on the uniforms of soldiers and flags. No less important was the fact that the words “till the last breath to defend the independence of the Fatherland' were introduced into the text of a soldier's oath, which testified to the liberation struggle (Gorzycki, 1921, pp. 64-65). An important role in the process of a patriotic education of soldiers was played by the personal example of higher levels leaders of government.

It is important, the democratic nature of a military education of soldiers during the Duchy of Warsaw arose from the fact that key positions in the army belonged to well-trained officers with perfect knowledge, formed on the ideals of T. Kosciuszko uprising and the Polish legions in Italy, which played a positive role in the education of servicemen. There are many facts, which prove the democracy of relations in the Polish armed forces of that period. In most spheres, the institute of personal ordinaries was abolished by commanders' order. General Jozef Zajoncek (1752 - 1826), issuing such an order, stated: “It is not good to use a soldier for help and culinary services” (Gorzycki, 1921, p. 65). This prohibition was also confirmed by the following orders and military prescripts. For instance, in the document regulating the activities of the services of “quartermasters” (1808) you can see the following records: “Some officers use soldiers for their own services, such abuse is prohibited under the greatest responsibility... . If it should happen that an officer dares to use a soldier for his own services, such an officer will be convicted..., and a soldier who, despite the ban, allowed himself to abuse trust, will also be convicted to be the example to the others, because it is not appropriate to perform lackey and military service " (Gorzycki, 1921, p. 65).

Attention was also paid to the military educational institutions of the Duchy of Warsaw (Kieniewicz, 1997), in which the national civic character of education of cadets dominated. The ideals brought up at school were embodied in the life of the units they controlled. Instead, army officers of a noble descent, despite some birth privileges, did not play a significant role in upbringing. Instead, they kept to conservative habits and remnants, focusing their activities mainly on a specialized military training.

On the lands of the Dutchy of Warsaw there were two cadet corps - the institutions in Helm and Kalisz. However, the institutions needed radical changes in the education system. The level of training was low. The commander of the Polish troops (security guards), General Jozef Poni- atowski, drew attention to this fact in his letters to King Friedrich August (1750 - 1827). In one of them he wrote: "... the training of cadets in Kalisz and Helm is general and only initial, and the moment of Germanization is marked very clearly " (CAHR, sek. V, vol. 292, nr. 13, 14). The existing Prussian staff had to be abandoned and immediately replacd by the Poles. The same views were expressed by the educator Jozef Lipinski (1764 - 1828). In the document, summarizing the fifteen years of the Education Chamber, he wrote: “The law of knightly schools was introduced in the spirit of their views, which were the easiest to try to get closer to - two schools in Kalisz and Helm began to teach primary sciences almostfrom the cradle of children brought up by the government's expances, having the young taken from the womb, they had to serve until the cessation in the new generation of those feelings and memories that would connect them in a continuous chain with the previous parental origin; to extinguish in young hearts with milk almost suckedfeelings for the people, turning them into a new government, erasing (ifpossible) the signs of a parental origin " (Lipinski & Kukulski, 1931, pp. 7-8).

Cadet schools were an important link in the system of a military education and military personnel training. Work on the implementation of an educational and organizational reform of those institutions was launched at a rapid pace. As early as April 30, 1807, the governing commission ordered the Education Chamber to prepare for it a programme of “military science” and “determination of the general education content”, as well as to obtain appropriate funds to support both institutes (Gembarzewski & Mankowski, 1917). Formally (in the spirit of republican France), in accordance with the adopted on December 22, 1807 “Rules of Conduct during the Admission of Candidates to the Cadets Corps”, developed by Stanislav Stashitsa on behalf of the Chamber, schools were affordable to all social classes, which clearly indicated the democratic tendencies in the educational policy. According to this document, the priority of admission was given to the sons of honored military, civil servants, citizens affected by the war (Lipinski, 1812).

Modernized curriculum in cadet schools - “Curriculum in Kalsk and Chelm Cadet Corps”, corresponded to the activity spheres of the departmental school - the highest organized educational institution in the structure of a secondary education of the Duchy of Warsaw, which allowed to continue education at the main school (university) (CAHR, Archiwum Radziwillow, sygn. II. 140, p. 3). This is confirmed by “§1 of the Internal Apparatus of Departmental Schools, approved on November 16, 1812: the proper purpose of every departmental school is to provide students with such thorough principles of science and skills, teaching their minds andfilling their hearts with noble feelings, so that the young man, having graduated with honours from all the classes of that school, may be ready to learn a skill in the Main School, in which he will want to improve, and eventually use it as the main subject of his appointment to the most important services to the country; stopping the education at the same school so that he can read and understand scientific papers usefully, and as an educated citizen both to cope and to support other citizens with his advice, also to have a common understanding of all branches of science and useful skills needed to work for the people for good”( Lipinski, 1812, pp. 3-4).

It is interesting to note that the high school programme implemented in the cadet institutions was aimed at basic information and activities of the military, including basic knowledge of a junior officer (horse riding, combat training, fencing, construction of simple field fortifications). During the two-week summer camps, students performed practical exercises, strengthening and expanding the theoretical knowledge gained during the lectures (See Table 1).

Table 1. Specialized Training of Cadets 1808 - 1812 (weekly schedule)

(Central State Historical Archive, Sankt Petersburg, f. 1187, d. 31, c. 33)

It should be noted that the cadet was in the corps for six years, during which he received basic knowledge and the necessary practical skills. Graduates, who wished to continue their professional military service, were required to complete a two-month internship in noncommissioned officer positions in the units. After its graduation and positively passed officer's exams, graduates could apply for the first officer's degree - lieutenant. Those, who received the highest academic results were given the opportunity to continue their education at Warsaw School of Applied Artillery and Engineering.

Stanislav August Poniatowski's knightly schools were taken as a model during educational work in cadet institutions. The emphasis was on a moral education. The recommendations for educational work with young people were made by Jozef Lipinski, at the suggestion of the Directorate of National Education and personally by General Stanislaw Kostka Potocki (1755 - 1821), the General Commander of the Cadet Corps (Katechizm dla Korpusow Kadeckich, 1813). In the first part of the textbook “On the Responsibilities of a Young Man in the Cadet Corps” there were defined the goals of an intellectual, moral and patriotic and physical education, the re were described clearly the responsibilities of the Fatherland service. To the question: “What is a cadet?” the author gives the following answer: “It is the child of the Fatherland. The latter is engaged in his upbringing, so that in some period of time it will be useful for the child and for the Fatherland” (Katechizm dla Korpusow Kadeckich, 1813, p. 1, art. 1). In the subsequent part of the questions and answers of the first part of the Catechism, Jozef Lipinski clearly clarified the principles and forms of an appropriate behaviour in various situations of a school life. Particular attention was paid to relationships with teachers, supervisors, and colleagues; a physical and mental health of cadets, “because without health there is no force, without which a person with the highest ability neither perform a military service, nor his work to be paid to the Fatherland” (Katechizm dla Korpusow Kadeckich, 1813, p. 5, art. 10). In the second part of the document “On the Duties of a Cadet after Graduation and Leaving the Corps” there were defined the moral principles that should guide a school graduate in an adult life, especially in the military service (Katechizm dla Korpusow Kadeckich, 1813, p. 15, art. 15).

The records set forth in the “Catechism” formed the character of the cadets, a civic attitude, patriotism, preferences for a military service, a motivated activity, independence and collective action. The textbook was a guide to educational work with cadet youth on the basis of a patriotic interaction “soldier - citizen - officer”.

The importance of patriotic civic and moral education in personality formation of young people was duly assessed in school civil affairs during the Duchy of Warsaw. The proof of this fact are the words of the rector of Vilnius University Jan Sniadetski (1756 - 1830), who appealed to the student youth “to support and strengthen their people with thorough knowledge, majesty of talents, loyalty to the rights of honour, justice and virtue. Without work and diligence, a person not only cannot buy anything, but will not be able to keep and preserve the purchased things. It is up to you, school youth, to increase such a happily awakened sense of a national pride with the benefits gained from science” (Helpern, 1919, p. 35).

A significant role in the formation of discipline and encouragement of cadets to compete in science and service was played by the system of rewards and punishments (disciplinary regulations), developed in August 1809 by Stanislav Kostka Potocki, the Commander-in-Chief of the Cadet Corps (Zasady S. K. Potockich, 1809, pp. 1043-1045). The highest reward for high results in a military science, training and exemplary behavior was a golden eagle on a green ribbon pinned to the cadet's uniform; a silver eagle was no less valuable award of the second degree. Presenting these awards, the corps commandant addressed to the cadet with the following words: “The King and the Fatherland give this honour to the Honorable Lord as a reward for his diligence in science and desire to participate in it further. Dear Sir, try not only not to lose this right by of indulging into science, but also to redouble your efforts to earn a greater reward and attitude from the Government. May fidelity to the King, love for the Fatherland, honour for the rest of his life be the greatest rules for him” (Zasady S. K. Potockich, 1809, pp. 1044-1045).

The research of historical and educational aspects of a military education gives ground to state that a significant educational function was performed by a military ceremony, which included elements of religious worship. The ceremony covered such spheres of a military life as handing out weapons, taking the military oath, using various types of military and national symbols, appointment to the next higher military ranks, honours and awards, marches, parades, line-ups. An important place in the educational activity was occupied by the meetings of the students with the school chaplain, who, in addition to his pastoral work, was responsible for the formation of the students' high morale spirit: loyalty, courage, discipline, honesty in the duties performance to the country and faith, sacrifice, the ability to deal with their own shortcomings. In addition, the spiritual rank of a chaplain gave the educational process a religious character on the basis of a love for the God and a human being. It should be noted that military schools were the place where a “caste” was formed, which differed not only in external distinctions and privileges, but, above all, awareness of the goals and mission, spiritual and moral face. The education of an officer (a soldier - citizen - statesman) was crucial for the army, as it was its basis. It should be noted that the civil school authorities of the Duchy of Warsaw (Education Chamber) in their national education projects took care of the education of the Poles' young generation, who would be statesmen (Lopacinski, 1917).

The Conclusions

The system of education in a civil and military schooling during the period of the Duchy of Warsaw was entirely national. In general, as a result of educational work based on the best traditions of T Kosciuszko uprising and the functioning of the legions, the armed forces became a school of patriotism, which made it possible to understand that the Duchy of Warsaw provided freedom of the personality and the opportunity to pursue a military career as a citizen-soldier. The educational activities focused on the awakening of a sincere patriotism and a national consciousness in young people, the formation of love of the native language, history, Polish customs and traditions, and national affiliation. The study of historical and educational aspects of a military education provides an opportunity to state that the army of the Duchy of Warsaw, according to the personnel and organizational concept, was a national army that adhered to the democratic direction of education, which formed military, national and social virtues, which in its turn created a positive image of the army of the Duchy of Warsaw in the society. Internal relations in the Polish army were based on respect for historical victories in the past, which in turn determined the process of a military education aimed at forming a soldier-citizen-statesman, deeply patriotic, nationally conscious and loyal to his country. It is important that during this period two directions of a military education in the Duchy of Warsaw were singled out at the same time: the first direction promoted the ideas of an absolute discipline, complete obedience and order; the second direction of a military education advocated the continuation of the soldiers education in the traditions of T. Kosciuszko and legionnaires.

The organizational and ideological influence of the Polish military education on the national movement and socio-political processes in the Ukrainian lands remain perspective directions of this topic. In addition, the issue of reception of educational work in the Polish legions in Italy, the study of their educational and military practice of the specified period needs further development.

Acknowledgement. The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Krakow, the National Library in Warsaw, the Ternopil Oblast State Archives, and the Central State Historical Archive in Lviv for the fruitful cooperation in which they were able to process the documentary materials.

Funding. The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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military education duchy warsaw

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