Gig economy as a form of modern work practices: scientific discourse and practical aspects

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Gig economy as a form of modern work practices: scientific discourse and practical aspects

Anatolii Kolot

Oksana Herasymenko

Anna Shevchenko

Abstract

The article contains the argumentation of the gig economy in the context of labor organization in the first half of the XXI century. Approaches to understanding the gig economy in the social and labor dimension are generalized. The authors emphasize the ambiguity and divergence of researchers' opinions and the multidimensional perception of the gig economy by practitioners and analysts.

The authors' concept of the gig economy emphasizes the "binding" to digital platforms and the status of employee independence by identifying opportunities and threats that gig economy produces for labor subjects. It is proved that the formation of gig economy is primarily associated with the development of information and communication online platforms and the increase in the stratum of the labor force that falls under the status of an independent, self-employed worker. The quintessence of the article is the authors' hypothesis that gig economy is one of the segments of the new economy, which embodies the economy of precarious employment.

The article represents technological platforms' interpretations of generalization, showing the ambivalence of their understanding; the fundamental components of technical platforms as prerequisites for forming and scaling the gig economy are highlighted. Positions of researchers and representatives of the expert community regarding the vision of employment in the gig economy concept are highlighted; the conceptual characteristics of gig economy in the context of employment are defined. The stratification groupings of the labor force from the point of view of attracting an alternative labor force (the so-called gig workers) are presented. Motivational factors and attitudes of gig workers are revealed. The authors prove the diversity of the digital platforms' impact on the labor market and organizational environment with arguments for destructive and constructive effects. Factual data on economic, geographical, and professional aspects of expanding the gig economy's scale are presented.

In the authors' understanding, the gig economy, alternatively called the "1099 economy", is presented as a new economic model with a particular social and labor dimension, covering various forms of short-term employment, where none of the employed have the status of a salaried employee.

Keywords: Gig Economy, Gig Platforms, Enablers, Disruptors, Employment, Labor Market, Gig Workers.

Statement of the problem

gig economy part-time employment

In the context of dynamic multi-vector transformations in the third decade of the twenty-first century, there is a need for a total revision of the established ideas regarding traditional foundations of the economy. The breakthrough technologies of Industry 4.0 and large-scale and pervasive digitalization are changing economy's structure and the hierarchy of resources, giving rise to fundamentally new business processes and making significant modifications to market interactions. The transformation of the world of work and employment, which is one of the "products" of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and the fifth and sixth technological modes, occupies a prominent place in the chain of changes.

The symbiosis of today's disruptive technologies is transforming the labor market, bringing significant changes to the supply and demand of labor. The combination of information and biotechnology, Yuval Noah Harari notes, could soon force billions of people out of the labor market and undermine both freedom and equality. Big Data algorithms can create digital dictatorships in which all power is concentrated in the hands of a handful of elites. At the same time, the vast majority of people suffer not from exploitation but from something much worse - uselessness [1].

The European branch of the global trade union IndustriAll emphasizes that the process of digitalization concentrates power and wealth on digital market platforms, thereby depriving all other companies in the value chain of the opportunity to invest, innovate and provide decent wages and working conditions; it questions the basis of permanent full-time employment relationships based on collective agreements, as all the functions of these relationships (including control over the task) can be performed.

The rapid growth of gig economy platforms has sparked a heated debate in academic circles and the expert community about their impact on the labor market and social and labor development. Two poles of vision regarding gig economy's possibilities and effects have emerged in the scientific and applied fields. Proponents of one of the approaches believe that these platforms exploit gaps in labor legislation and disrupt the labor market. On the other hand, different approach supporters see gig platforms as a potential for flexibility, productivity, and unemployment reduction.

Analysis of recent research and publications. Researches from different countries reveal the problem of the gig economy through the prism of labor relations in cyberspace (Todoli-Signes A.), short-term employment (Banik N., Padalkar M.), hybrid individual self-employment (Bogenhold D., Klinglmair R., Kandutsch F.), online labor markets for freelancers (Kathuria A., Saldanha T., Khuntia J.), alternative forms of work organization (Lawrence F. Katz, Alan B. Krueger), flexibility in the workforce (Susan Athey, Juan Camilo Castillo, Bharat Chandar), business models of the future (Gula?ti §EN), impact on the labor market (Brinkley I.).

Practical aspects of gig economy are reflected in the data of international institutions, research and consulting companies, HR associations and corporate academies, and business platforms (International Labor Organization, Deloitte, Gartner, McKinsey, Josh Bersin Academy, Harvard Business School, Statista).

The article aims to argue for the opportunities and threats posed by the gig economy to labor practices and employment in the first half of the twenty-first century. To achieve this goal, the authors set a number of tasks for a comprehensive analysis of the theoretical heritage and applied aspects of the gig economy, in particular: to study the genesis of the definition of the gig economy, to identify the motivational factors and driving forces that encourage people to choose gig-work; to clarify the role of gig-platforms as a technological tool for transforming labor practices; to identify geographical and professional factors for scaling gig-platforms; to argue for the impact of the gig economy on the labor market.

Authors' hypothesis, which takes the leading place in the article, is formulated as follows: gig economy is one of the segments of the new economy that functions based on the use of gig platforms and is the embodiment of the precarious work economy. Non-standard employment for all parties to labor agreements creates new opportunities, risks, and threats. It requires new formats for reconciling the interests of social and labor interaction subjects.

Outline of the core material

Theory proves, and practice confirms, that even though gig economy has become an object of attention in the scientific community in recent decades, there still needs to be an unambiguous definition and legal framework for this phenomenon. There has yet to be a consensus among scientists and analytical conclusions of research organizations regarding the opportunities, challenges, and threats posed by the gig economy to the sphere of work and employment.

Theoretical foundations of the gig economy.

In our mental model, gig economy is seen as a characteristic of a more comprehensive global term, the digital economy. There are several subsystems within this economic system for which digital technologies, digital business models, and information infrastructure play the role of critical resources, factors of formation, and function. In the era of digitalization and the dominance of technology, which are the offspring of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, multilateral markets and their specific format, becoming multilateral platforms, are being formed and intensively developed. Digitalization and the information and communication environment have given impetus to developing platforms as an institution for establishing contacts and interaction between two or more stakeholders.

Analysis of foreign and domestic scientific sources containing research results on the nature and essence of technology platforms shows that the latter have ambiguous, often contradictory interpretations. In some cases, they are identified with corporate platforms [3] or interpreted as the essence of digital platforms [4]. There is an opinion that technological platforms are a tool for interaction between the state, business, science, and education [5].

Many researchers view a technology platform as a component of an ecosystem [6] or a network association [7]. The literature available also defines a technology platform as a complex or "an ensemble of technologies existing in a single field of knowledge" [8].

Despite the existing contradictory statements, simplifications, and eclectic statements, more balanced, complex, scientifically based definitions, which show the philosophical context, emphasize the harmonization of relations on a digital basis, and the pursuit of sustainable development, are nevertheless gaining ground and dominating.

The fundamental elements (structures) of technological platforms are as follows:

- the use of the most advanced breakthrough technologies;

- full-scale digitalization of digital interaction processes;

- integration of digitalization and other disruptive technologies and creation of preconditions for gaining undeniable competitive advantages.

Despite the practice of corporate and industry-level platforms that existed before the early 21st century, there is reason to believe that the official definition of the "technology platform" concept is a "product" of the new millennium and originated in the economic and cultural space of Europe.

Over the past two decades, this term has undergone specific evolutionary changes and additions to its content characteristics. Thus, if at the first stages of using this term, it was associated with a set of technologies that become a tool (method, mechanism, infrastructure basis) for innovative development at the company level, technological independence at the macro level, and a new model of sustainable development at the level of global markets; then later its meaningful load has been significantly increased.

At the end of the second and beginning of the third decades of this century, definitions of this concept were dominated by the emphasis on the unique technologies of platform companies. The latter were the first to transition from the information age to the digital age and base its business activities on platform business models. Thus, we are talking about symbiosis, synergy, and a mutually reinforcing combination of unique disruptive technology platforms and non- traditional, post-industrial, and post-information platform business models that create the preconditions for gig economy functioning and produce new opportunities and new threats to employment.

It is common to understand the concept of employment in the gig economy in terms of non-standard and precarity, which is confirmed by the findings of Tom Montgomery and Simone Baglioni. These authors refer to the Department of Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy's definition of gig economy: "Gig economy involves the exchange of labor for money between individuals or companies through digital platforms that actively facilitate arrangements between suppliers and customers on a short-term and task-based basis" [9].

Gula?ti §en describes the gig economy as an "independent work model" that brings together companies that need workers for a fee and workers who want to work independently [10]. This author links gig economy to technological platforms.

Ian Brinkley of The Work Foundation links gig economy to the "sharing economy," which includes all those who use digital platforms to coordinate individual parts of work directly with clients [11].

Gig economy as digital platforms that allow freelancers to connect with potential clients for short-term work, contract work, or asset sharing is defined by Statista [12]. Statista's definition considers asset sharing as part of the gig economy, associating it with home-sharing platforms such as Airbnb.

The World Economic Forum refers to the UK government's definition of the gig economy, which involves the exchange of labor for money between individuals or companies through digital platforms that actively facilitate the search for suppliers and customers on a short-term, pay-as-you-go basis [13].

McKinsey researchers define gig economy as a labor market characterized by temporary, flexible, and short-term work for which organizations hire independent workers, including freelancers, contractors, and temporary employees [14]. McKinsey's conclusions do not emphasize a direct connection with technology platforms.

Discussion positions generalization allows identifying the quintessence of the gig economy: economic relations between clients and service providers are shortterm, arising from predefined tasks that are implemented using digital platforms. The gig economy is focused on something other than standard employment in the social and labor format.

Hence, the gig economy can be interpreted as an economic system in which individual providers and customers use digital platforms to offer and purchase predefined services on a short-term basis.

The gig economy definition includes the following conceptual characteristics:

1) digital platforms are defined as technologies and specialized programs used to provide services at the request of customers;

2) the term "clients" covers a wide range of individuals, entrepreneurs, and companies, since any of them can receive services from providers;

3) "individual providers" category covers various types of gig workers and non-standard work (not related to the general term "employment");

4) short-termism is a sign of the job's temporary nature, which allows individuals to focus on the skills needed to perform it.

Stratification of gig workers.

Gig economy attracts an alternative workforce (the so-called gig workers): self- employed, freelancers, independent workers, and crowd workers who can choose an online platform and determine the organizational framework for performing work. These features distinguish gig workers from traditional employment [15].

According to McKinsey study, the majority (70%) of gig workers choose this style of work as both their primary and secondary job and are stratified into four segments:

1) free agents - employees who receive their primary income from independent work and consciously choose this style of work (30%);

2) temporary employees use independent work for additional income, doing so by choice. Some of them have a traditional main job, while others are students, retirees, or childcare workers (40%);

3) reluctant workers - employees who receive their primary income from independent work but prefer traditional work (14%);

4) financially strapped - employees who work and provide for themselves but prefer not to do side jobs for the additional income (16%) [14].

What motivates people to be gig-employed?

The study of the gig economy in terms of opportunities and threats in the field of labor and employment leads to the search for an answer to the question: “Why people choose gigs?” To support our argument, we'll cite the results of a Harvard Business School (HBS) study on what it takes to succeed in gig work. The gig workers surveyed testified that they felt anxious without the support of a traditional employer. Still, they also claimed that their independence was their choice and that they would not give up the benefits of it. However, survey showed that gig workers worry about unpredictable schedules and income. At the same time, respondents testified that they live a more prosperous life than their corporate colleagues.

HBS identified four types of connections that helped gig workers to endure the emotional ups and downs of their work and to gain energy and inspiration from their freedom [16]:

1) Place (collaborative spaces and workplaces that protect them from external distractions and pressures);

2) Routine (use of procedures to increase concentration and efficiency);

3) Purpose (being successful means doing only work that is related to a broader goal);

4) People (creating communities of gig workers to support each other in their professional and career development).

The HBS study concludes that "people in the gig economy must pursue a different kind of success - one that comes from finding a balance between predictability and possibility, between viability (the promise of continued work) and vitality (feeling present, authentic, and alive in one's work)" [16].

McKinsey researchers have identified the main driving forces and motivations for gig work:

1) More than 25% of respondents claim that they do independent work because of the "need to meet the basic needs of the family."

2) 20% of respondents claim that they started freelancing to build an independent career and add additional income to their family budget;

3) 25% of independent workers report doing independent work because they enjoy it. This is the top reason cited by higher-paid workers, including 32% of independents earning more than $150,000 per year;

4) 25% of independent workers said they work in the independent market because of its autonomy and flexibility [17].

The above evidence proves that gig economy is driven by technology and people. It demonstrates people's growing need for flexibility and autonomy, which leads to a massive shift of employees from standard forms of employment to nonstandard gig relationships.

According to Josh Bersin's research [18], the high demand for non-standard work solutions is driven by the world of the "pixelated workforce," where people of different ages, backgrounds, and education work in jobs they never dreamed of. There are many ways to work, and everyone chooses their option based on skills, location, age, and lifestyle. The pixelated workforce requires hybrid and flexible solutions.

Josh Bersin's research describes the path from traditional employment (the 1960s to 1990s: a stable career with one company for life) through the Transparent Labor Market period (2000s to 2018: the Internet allowed employers to post job openings in a virtual environment; employees who wanted to change careers were able to look for other jobs) to the Pixelated Workforce phase (today, the word "pixelated" means "you see pixels" - and that's exactly what the workforce looks like today). Each person in each type of work is a mini-workforce with its way of doing business [19].

Are digital platforms destructive or helpful?

Although most studies link gig economy to technology, there are different opinions on how technology platforms affect the labor market.

For example, the OECD Economic Department defines gig platforms as twosided digital platforms that bring together workers on one side of the market and customers on the other, based on individual services ("gigs"). This definition excludes platforms for selling goods, such as Amazon, and two-sided platforms without an intermediate labor force, such as Airbnb [20].

The fundamental characteristic of any two-sided digital platform is the direct connection between clients and providers rather than the organization of specialized providers in firms; platforms mostly turn to self-employed contractors rather than employees of firms to provide services [20]. Among such platforms are PaaS (platforms as a service), i.e., platforms that involve direct contact between the client and the provider.

Adrian Todoli-Signes explores the legal perspective of digital platforms and links them to a new type of company, "databases," which match supply and demand. According to the study, these companies claim that they do not control gig workers and classify them as self-employed. However, the author argues that such gig workers can be classified as regular employees [15]. This concept considers technology platforms as employers and ranks them as new companies based on the "on-demand economy" or "sharing economy" that aims to directly connect customers with individual service providers. According to this approach, technology platform companies are the real disruptors of the labor market.

The International Labor Organization identifies two main categories of digital gig platforms:

1. Employees perform tasks or work assignments online or remotely on web-based platforms. These tasks may include providing legal, financial, and patent services, text translation, software design and development on freelance platforms; solving complex programming or data analysis tasks within a specified time frame on competitive programming platforms; and performing short-term jobs such as annotating images, moderating content, or transcribing videos on micro-tasking platforms.

2. Tasks on local platforms are performed by workers in person at designated physical locations and include taxi, delivery, and home services (e.g., plumbing or electricians), household chores, and assistance [21].

These groups of gig platforms attract different categories of clients and providers, as well as different skills and services. This classification determines the impact of different technology platforms on the labor market.

For at least two reasons, online gig labor marketplaces pose significant strategic challenges for clients in determining the quality of services, which is an important indicator when selecting service providers. First, online gig labor marketplaces offer a multitude of suppliers from all over the world, so there is a high risk of poor quality selection, as suppliers are globally distributed and independent heterogeneous agents. Second, online freelance labor markets are usually characterized by the absence of formal procedures or service-level agreements [22].

Digital platforms for gig work have built-in algorithms for assessing and controlling service quality. A study by Susan Athey, Juan Camilo Castillo, and Bharat Chandar focused on service quality in gig robotics. This study's authors observed the service quality and behavioral aspects of UberX and UberTaxi drivers. The study confirms that new platforms rely on various technological capabilities and market forces to incentivize providers to provide high-quality services [23].

We share the view of Nilanjan Banik and Milind Padalkar that the development of technological infrastructure, while important, does not fully explain the uneven penetration of the gig economy and the variations in its impact across sectors, professions, and skill levels [24]. Indeed, digital platforms play a crucial role in the rapid growth of the gig economy. However, their origins lie in the more profound realm of work transformation and the growing need for autonomy and flexibility. We see digital platforms as a driving force for innovative changes in the labor market.

Tom Montgomery and Simone Baglioni define the contemporary impact of technology by the degree of disruption it has caused in various sectors and the consequences that such disruption has for the organization of work [9].

Economic, geographical, and professional aspects of the gig economy expansion.

The gig economy is spreading all over the world, but there are countries and industries where it has the highest rates. Estimates of people employed in the gig economy are mostly done through digital gig platforms. Household surveys are complicated by the relatively small proportion of workers currently working in specific alternative employment settings in any given period [25].

A Deloitte study says that the gig market is fueled by COVID-19-related layoffs and the willingness of many large organizations to work with remote workers. The gig economy grew by 33% during the pandemic in 2020 as jobs were lost or reduced and people sought to increase their income [26].

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1.6 million gig workers work for services such as Uber, TaskRabbit, and others. India, the Philippines, and the United States are the three most significant centers of contingent labor [24]. The US Federal Reserve believes anyone can be a gig worker, from a nanny to an Uber driver. According to this definition, there are up to 75 million gig workers in the United States [27]. It is expected that in 2023, the projected gross volume of the gig economy will grow by 17% and reach 455.2 billion US dollars [12].

Josh Bersin shares the results of an MBO Partners and Deloitte study: almost 40% of Americans now have part-time or temporary jobs, and nearly 2/3 of young people also have part-time jobs, doing work on the side. This means that "alternative labor" is no longer an alternative and is now part of everyday life [19; 28; 29].

The industries with the highest demand for gig workers, as practice shows, include information technology (IT), IT-enabled services, e-commerce, retail, hospitality, and the consumer goods (FMCG) sector, where temporary workers are in high demand [24].

The International Labor Organization reports that the number of website- based and location-based online platforms (taxi and delivery) has grown from 142 in 2010 to more than 777 in 2020. The number of website-based online platforms tripled during this period, while taxi and delivery platforms grew almost tenfold. A significant portion of these platforms is concentrated in just a few locations, including the United States (29%), India (8%), and the United Kingdom (5%) [21].

The impact of the gig economy on the labor market.

Summarizing the trends of the new socioeconomic reality allows us to highlight the following aspects of the gig economy's impact on the labor market:

1. Employment Growth: The gig economy is driving productivity growth by increasing labor participation through digital platforms. Nilanjan Banik and Milind Padalkar note that companies can assign tasks to multiple freelancers who specialize in the field instead of hiring one generalist to handle all tasks. Employees are also more vested in the outcome, as productivity standards determine future earnings. Interconnected global labor markets increase economic productivity even in European countries currently experiencing labor shortages. Most likely, the most significant gains will be observed among workers from developing countries with abundant labor [24].

2. Gig platforms reveal employment opportunities for low-income people: they are more likely to participate in gig platforms than their higher- income counterparts. This low-income group is also more persistent in using the platform to find a job: 56% of the lowest-income participants continued to use the platform for 12 months, compared to 47% of the middle-income participants and 40% of the highest-income participants [24].

3. Survey results show that most digital platform workers are highly educated men. ILO surveys of workers on online web-based platforms and local platforms show that most platform workers are under 35 years of age and have a university degree (especially in developing countries). The further development of digital labor platforms can provide workers, including women, people with disabilities, youth, and migrant workers, with incomegenerating opportunities [21].

4. Since some types of gig work have low barriers to entry and service provision, lower-income people tend to take up this work. Almost half of all migrants report being independent workers in the United States [17].

5. Many workers on digital labor platforms have experienced discrimination or harassment. Discrimination on online web-based platforms is related to the exclusion of work opportunities or low pay based on nationality and gender. This was mentioned in particular by women respondents and workers from developing countries. Workers on local platforms also indicated that they had experienced or witnessed discrimination or harassment [21].

6. A report by the International Labor Organization states that gig workers earn less than the government's minimum wage [21; 24]. This can be explained by the fact that the supply of labor on online web platforms exceeds the demand, which puts pressure on the level of payment.

7. Full-time employment in the gig economy can lead to lower incomes and the economic vulnerability of low-skilled workers in developed countries [24]. Work on digital platforms is the primary source of income for many workers. However, there are significant differences between workers' earnings on online platforms in developed and developing countries. In developing countries, gains in the app-based taxi and delivery sectors tend to be higher than in traditional sectors [21].

8. Terms of service primarily regulate the working conditions on digital platforms. Members of gig platforms cannot participate in collective bargaining. Most workers on digital platforms still need social insurance [21].

9. The dependence of gig platforms on self-employed rather than hired contractors may have a negative impact on market competition, provided that tax obligations differ for different forms of work. Lower social security contributions for the self-employed than for employees partly reflect lower social rights. At the same time, in some countries, they may unjustifiably give gig platforms an economic advantage over traditional businesses [20].

The gig economy's impact on the organizational environment.

Like the general labor market, companies can benefit from the gig economy and face potential challenges. Some evidence shows the strengths and weaknesses of gig practices, opportunities, and threats to social and labor development.

Deloitte's research confirms the importance of the alternative workforce in sustaining an economy in turmoil. Global businesses and shared services organizations can help protect themselves from unpredictable demand by integrating alternative labor into their operating model. This will allow them to increase capacity when and where it is needed most [30].

The SHRM study reveals aspects of management, discipline, and labor efficiency for a gig and full-time workers. Companies provide minimal management guidance to gig workers compared to full-time employees. Gig workers are usually free to plan their working hours. And the greater the skill set and demand for an employee's experience, the better the compensation and choice of projects the employee can take on. Managers should be wary of requiring gig workers to do things that might make them appear like regular employees. If they are managed traditionally, the law may characterize them as traditional employees, and then the company will be responsible for providing them with labor benefits [27]. The ILO states that different businesses, from startups to Fortune 500 companies, increasingly rely on online platforms. Companies use online platforms to optimize hiring processes; reduce costs, increase efficiency; access knowledge; and seek innovation [21]. Josh Bersin explores the use of gig platforms for recruitment and mobility programs: companies should open up their career models, create gig jobs within the organization, and start rewarding people for skills and reputation, not just for seniority and position level [18].

A Deloitte study states that organizations that need quick access to skills to complete a project often find it easier to hire workers on a short-term basis than to spend months reviewing resumes, conducting interviews, and onboarding new employees [30]. A McKinsey study reveals the peculiarities of hiring gig workers. Organizations should be prepared to develop new methods of hiring and workforce planning if they want to attract this part of the workforce [14]. In HR Predictions for 2023, Josh Bersin looks at gig work as a source of a talent management strategy based on skills and qualifications. He also discusses the ideas of an internal talent market and working with skills as part of internal mobility programs [31].

Hiring temporary workers is a faster way to test people for possible future employment. For an organization to utilize the resources of gig platforms, projects need to be broken down by skill requirements and corresponding tasks. This more detailed task planning can be challenging for managers who are used to assigning people to groups of tasks [26].

IT organizations must develop practices to manage the increased security risks posed by the rapid changes in the gig workforce. Employers also need to pay attention to the importance of the social security system for this workforce. Businesses should also closely monitor tax legislation [26].

Conclusions

Due to the spread of modern labor practices in labor and employment, dozens of new categories, definitions, and concepts have been introduced into scientific circulation, which should reflect modern society and work phenomena and processes. Today, scientific and applied literature is full of new definitions that interpret the same or similar, related phenomena and processes differently, often opposed. This does not contribute to finding coordinated solutions, developing and implementing an effective employment policy.

The above fully applies to such a category and institution as the gig economy. In practice, we do not observe any coordination or convergence of views in this area. Moreover, there is a growing trend toward differences in the interpretation of the nature and essence of the defining features of this category.

The article contains the authors' concept of the gig economy, the key references of which are "tethering" to digital platforms and employee independence.

The test of the central hypothesis showed that the formation of the gig economy is mainly related to the development of online information and communication platforms and the growth of a layer of the labor force that falls under the status of an independent, self-employed worker. Thus, we are talking about a new economic model that covers various forms of short-term employment, where only some workers enjoy the status of a salaried employee. Given that the economic model under study involves the fulfillment of short-term orders at predetermined rates (tariffs), the gig economy has a synonymous name - "1099 economy" [32], the origin of which is associated with the 1099-MISK tax form filled out by American companies for freelance employees with incomes above $600. All other signs and characteristics - precarious employment, on-demand work, independent work, "mini" or "midi" jobs, and other one-time engagements - are the consequences, derivative attributes of the new economic model, and its particular social and labor dimension.

The authors formulate and test a hypothesis regarding the positive and negative effects of the spread of gig employment.

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27. SHRM (2020). Managing Expectations: How to Balance Gig Workers and Regular Employees https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-topics/employee-relations/pages/managing- gig-workers-.aspx, by Dana Wilkie.

28. Deloitte (2022). The Deloitte Global 2022 Gen Z and Millennial Survey https://www.deloitte.com/global/en/issues/work/genzmillennialsurvey.html

29. MBO Partners (2022). Happier, Healthier & Wealthier, https://www.mbopartners.com/ state-of-independence/

30. Deloitte (2021). The gig economy and future of shared services and GBS delivery models Alternative workforces: The right talent at the right time https://www2.deloitte.com/ us/en/pages/operations/articles/future-of-gig-economy-shared-services-delivery-model.html by Kort Syverson and Caroline Leies.

31. Josh Bersin Academy (2023). HR Predictions for 2023, https://joshbersin.com/ 2023/01/predictions-for-2023-redefining-work-the-workforce-and-hr/, by Josh Bersin.

32. Kalleberg A.L., Dunn M. (2016). Good jobs, bad jobs in the gig economy. LERA for Libraries, 20(1-2), 10-14. http://lerachapters.org/OJS/ojs-2.4.4-1/index.php/PFL/article/viewFile/3112/3087.

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