"Picturesque Japan" imagotype in european production feature film (1945-2015)

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“Picturesque Japan” imago type in European production feature film (1945-2015)

Tymofeyenko A.V., graduate student, Department of Cultural Studies, Kharkiv State Academy of Culture

Abstract

The article is dedicated to disclosure of “picturesque Japan” imagotype representation features in European feature film. The author systematizes scientific literature dedicated to outlined problems and highlights problems unsolved before. The use of an imagological method and “imagotype” term in culturological studies are reasoned. There have been defined the main structure elements for an image and highlighted specific topics for a “picturesque Japan” representation. As a conclusion author suggests further study of an imagotype of Japan as “yellow peril”.

Keywords: picturesque Japan, Japan image, representation, imagotype, imagology, European feature film.

Introduction

Cinema is one of modern art forms, which allows it to retranslate and form a public opinion with the greatest efficiency. The main functions of cinema, as for any other culture text, are cognitive and communicative. Feature film as a cinematic text satisfies human need in knowledge of something new, which is why there is no wonder that one of the most popular cinematic genres considered adventure movies, in which a character gets into another cultural space.

Cinema as an element of a modern media culture is able to transmit stable images of the world. Tendency of cinematic appeal to archetypal symbols allows it to create and propagandize another picture of the world. The “youthfulness” of cinema compared to another traditional art forms stipulates one more important feature for cinema, which is ability to trace modern society trends. Even if a film plot tells us about events in the past, in the plot we can see implicit relation to designated topic in present.

Imagology as subject that studies images of a specific culture in another culture representatives' consciousness has been applying mainly to literature texts for a long time. Literature appeals with verbal images, which gives more productive space to form imagotype. Cinema offers already made artistic images, but high degree of viewer's complicity gives an opportunity to form images on subconscious level. It allows considering cinematic text as a demonstrative source of imagological studies, which gives us an opportunity to highlight the main principles of Japan's representation - in this case an image (imagotype) of “picturesque Japan”. By imagotype in this study, we mean symbolic construct that unites distinctive images by their common property. In our case, imagotype “picturesque Jap- ane” includes all main images in consciousness of European creators that causes to them certain degree of aesthetic involvement.

Analysis of recent researches and publications

French traveler Aimee Gumber in his homonymous work [2, Ñ. 57] has first suggested the term “picturesque Japan”. An image of Japan in Russian literature in the period from the middle of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century analyzed japanologist G. Chkhartishvili. The image of “picturesque Japan” in studies of G. Chkhartishvili connected with perception of Japanese as certain exotics. Perception of Japan as an “exotic charecter” [1, Ñ. 193] has been changing from facile (in the middle of the nineteenth century) to envious-respectful (beginning of the twentieth century).

Conceptualisation of the “picturesque Japan” image implemented japanologist V. Molodyakov in a work “An Image of Japan in Europe and Russia of the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century - the Beginning of the Twentieth Century” [2], in which author suggested thorough analysis of Japanese perception by European artists and writers in the specified period. As author notes, European creators have perceived “picturesque Japan” first of all as an artwork, idealized world. That is why the second period of the “picturesque Japan” image spread (which was characterized by perception of Japan as lost heaven) has come very quickly. It seemed to creators that idealized Japan existed, but outside the Yokohama - where foreigners had no chance to visit. Restoration of Meiji and related processes of “westernization” of the Japanese traditional way of life was only aggravate to the situation.

In foreign humanitarian thought main studies on this topic was held by E. Wilkinson, I. Littlewood and J. King. Wherein publication of E. Wilkinson [7] is mostly of a political nature, and the image of Japan in it forms on the base of travelers and journalists reception.

In his study “The Idea of Japan: Western Images, Western Myths” [5] an American historian I. Littlewood attempts to rethink cliched notions about Japan, their shaping and changes in the modern world. Main concepts that stand in the center of an author's research are exoticism of Japanese culture, its aesthetics, geisha and samurai. In this way I. Littlewood notes that most of stereotypic pictures of Japan made up by western people were formed in Meiji period and has not changed a lot since then. However, the cliched pictures complex now adds new images like technics and new technologies.

An American film critic J. King in a monography “Under Foreign Eyes: Western Cinematic Adaptations of Postwar Japan” studied western civilization representatives' perception of the Japan image, which is represented in cinema. The Japan image in European and American cinema, according to King, is simulacrum of western ideals and values. Besides cliched images (samurai and geisha), the author pays special attention to historical personalities, which exerted a strong influence on modern western art.

Analysis of forerunners' scientific searches allows us to make a conclusion about necessity of a “picturesque Japan” concept study within the framework of the European feature film. Thus, the aim of this article is detection of “picturesque Japan” imagotype representation principles in European feature films from 1945 to 2015.

Results and discussions

For several centuries, since the “forcible” Japan discovery by West, in the middle of the nineteenth century up to the middle of the twentieth century the main role in forming and spreading the image of Japan in European countries played art and literature. After WWII, the Japan image popularization has become one of the priorities to western countries cultural diplomacy, as there was necessity in changing its image from “yesterday's foe” to “today's ally”.

The accent was on peacefulness of the Japanese and their traditional culture features. On one hand, European countries sympathized the Japanese after American bombardment of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but at the same time, they followed a political course chosen by the USA as the main allies force. On the other hand, for a long time Japan has been considered by European countries as a possible threat, which is related to a myth of yellow peril that has gained the most popularity in France.

One of the Japan image popularization tools was chosen a cinema, as the historian J. Roston pointed out in studies of calling Japanese-American actors in propaganda movies [6]. Throughout the period of 19451958 European countries mainly produced war films. Translating the public mood, the film authors represented the Japanese as foes. However, it is worth noting, that besides cruel enemy in this period are also featured images of worthy and humane enemy, which were reviewed in our previous study [3].

Situation has changed significantly already in the middle 50-s, at the time when Japan started to demonstrate delightful success in economics resurgence (“Japanese economic miracle”) and creation of a democratic anti-militaristic society. The most popular movies among European viewers became films that represent an imago topic of traditional Japan, an era of feudalism and shogunate. The specific trait of “picturesque Japan” representation in such kind of movies became exoticism of Japanese culture, on which authors accented most often. As the Russian japanologist G. Chkhartishvili notes: “The Russians' interest to Japan - to its art, literature, tradition - lies mainly on whimsical and wobbly pedestal, whose name is love to exotics” [1, Ñ. 192]. In European cultural realities, interest to oriental aesthetics was building by the same principle.

In the movie “Around the World in Eighty Days” (1956) by British director M. Anderson, screen adaptation of French writer J. Verne's novel, Europeans can see Yokohama of 1860-s. The main imagemes of the “picturesque Japan” image are traditional costumes, wagasa (oil-paper umbrellas), majestic architecture, unhurriedly rhythm of life.

An exotic coloring of the country was not the only thing that attracted Europeans - it also were selected stratum of the population, especially samurai and geisha. In samurai, European film creators see a heroic personality, which has some flaw only in rare cases. British director T. Young's “Red Sun” (1971) represents it particelarry evident. The samurai is represented as superman that possesses unique fighting skills and endurance. Similar image of a samurai can be found in T. Kotani's “Bushido Blade” and G. Hessler's “Shogun Mayeda” (1991). Characteristic imagemes of Japan's representation for similar film are attempt to interpret the bushido code, symbolic meaning of the sword, the concept of honor and majesty.

In movies of the 1995-2015, we can also see interest to samurai subject, but for films like these free interpretation and modern adaptation typically occurs. It is also worth noticing that samurai phenomenon is also important imago-topic for another imagotype of Japan, which is “yellow peril”.

Geisha, as unique phenomenon of Japanese culture, was becoming a unique subject of interest and delight even for local artists and poets. Therefore, there is no surprise that their daintiness, elegancy and inscrutability conquered hearts of foreigners. Thus, after L. Petit had published his “Pays de mousme! Pays de guerre!” (1905), Japan was called for a long time “the country of mousme”, which can be translated as “the country of beautiful (splendid) girls” [2, Ñ. 57].

Analyzing of 1994 year's postcard series “Open your passport to the world” with symbolics of different countries, I. Littlewood notices that only one out of twelve postcards has got a human image, namely Japanese geisha. As author points, “for Japan it is exactly the same as the Taj Mahal for India or pyramids for Egypt. For many western people a Japanese woman image begins and ends on geisha” [4, Ñ. 162].

In cinema texts produced by Europe the image of geisha has got spread thanks to the opera “Madame Butterfly” (1903) by Italian composer G. Puccini. There have been made movies of the same name, based on libretto by French director J. -P. Ponnelle in 1974 and by British director B. Large in 1983. The “Madame Butterfly” opera served not only as material for a screen adaptation, but also as inspiration for European directors. In 1999 comes out the movie named “TopsyTurvy” by British director M. Leigh, in which authors symbolically refer us to the “Madame Butterfly” opera. The film embodies Europeans' enthusiasm about Japanese culture: the main character, well-known playwright, writes a play based on Japanese folklore after visiting Japanese exhibition in London. Story line is built on complicity of how the cast understands features of Japanese culture, and how it complicates work on the show. Whole movie is soaked with structure elements of “picturesque Japan”, which pervade cinematic text as inclusions that remain unseen to a viewer but affect its perception.

Women not seldom appear as a “picturesque Japan” representative, it is especially evident in dramatic genre. Japanese women appear before European viewers as young pretty girls, modest and with good manners. It is characteristic for these films, similar to “Madame Butterfly's” idea, to show love of Japanese woman and foreign man. For the first time in war cinema, this plot has been shown in 1967 in British director L. Gilbert's work “You live only twice”.

In more details the idea disclosed in several another movies, among which A. Mitta's and K. Yoshida's “Moscow, My Love” (1974) and S. Solovyov's and K. Nisimura's “Melodies of a White Night” (1976) deserve special attention. Japanese women are shown as defenseless delicate and in need of strong foreign man's help. There is also noticeable low expression or absence of male Japanese characters. At the same time, in L. Gilbert's “Seven Nights in Japan” (1976), which tells a story of love between a Japanese woman and a British prince, Japanese men are mainly negative characters.

The most important place in “picturesque Japan” representation on the western screen belongs to theme of Japanese art, which may be both a symbol and a full image. Art subject that bears in itself certain information, which a viewer needs to decrypt, is usually a symbol of interest and admiration for Japanese culture. In this way in the film “Cherry Blossoms” (2008) by D. Dorrie there are close-up for the ikebana bouquet, which symbolizes a dream of the main character's wife to visit Japan. In war films, for example “"Varangian" Cruiser” (1946) by V. Eisymont and “Order to cross the border” (1982) by Y. Ivanchuk, Japanese poetry appears as a symbol of the country with a great culture.

We need to pay special attention to representation of art as a structural element of “picturesque Japan” imagotype. In the film “Moscow, My Love” the main character is a talented ballerina that came to study in the Bolshoi Theatre, and in the movie “Melodies of a White Night” is a well-known pianist that is destined to accompany the main male character. There is also noticeable the fact that in both films the main female character is played by same actress - Komaki Kurihara.

At the same time, director G. Aronov films an adventure movie named “Krosh's vacation” (1980), events of which are lined up around Japanese miniature sculpture - netsuke. In this movie, Japan is represented through imageme of netsuke as a unique phenomenon of Japanese culture and arts and crafts. Main characters say almost nothing about Japan, but the main thoughts are transmitted by a feeling admiration of netsuke masters' fineness and high-grade skill.

Reflecting on the subject of Japanese art in European cinema, we cannot avoid remembering P. Greenaway's films. In a film “The Pillow Book” (1996) director pays the main attention to Japanese calligraphy. On one hand, it is the highest art, the world-learning tool, but on the other hand, calligraphy has changing and delicate temper: throughout the film, a text often being washed off.

Kabuki Theater may be considered as the most spread in in western countries Japanese traditional art. In a film “8/ Women” (1999) P. Greenaway presents Japan via girl that dreams to become a Kabuki Theater actress. In fact, for the whole duration of the events in the movie Kita rehearses theater scenes and rarely communicates with someone. The overall image of the character is mysterious, exotic, complicated to another characters' understanding.

Besides traditional art, European directors refer to the theme of modern Japanese art, especially avant- garde that was formed under influence of western flows. In particular, German director D. Dorrie refers to “Butoh”, the dance of darkness, in the movie “Cherry Blossoms”. Butoh is also often called a consciousness dance, as it aimed at human's self-cognition. Character traits for butoh that is represented in the film are white make-up of the dancer, loose clothing and a thing, with which character refers to someone. The basics of butoh considered by many critics as ritual dances kagura. In this way, in the movie a dancer from the U-park helps the main character to bid farewell with the dead wife.

Eastern philosophy for many centuries was incomprehensible for representatives of the Western civilization. Nevertheless, because of that it becomes more mysterious and attractive topic to discuss. Meditation as a philosophical practice may be a symbol in a film and main characters' purpose. In the first case, meditation of the main character is a background for a voiceover, like in A. Comeau's “Fear and Trembling” scene, where a character meditates on the stone garden. In the second case, meditation is woven in storyline as a main character's attempt to be alone with himself. For example, in S. Liberski's “Tokyo Fiancee” Amelie's mountain travel to meditate becomes an important turning point for a story. We can also mention main character's reflections about spread of this practice in Japan for all generations.

It especially refers to such religious-philosophical school as Zen Buddhism. Tired from wealth orientation Europeans travel to Eastern countries to meditate, find themselves. Characters of German movie “Enlightenment Guaranteed” (2000) do the same way. They come to Japan to live in a Buddhist temple and imbue the basics of Japanese philosophy. After overcoming difficult physical and spiritual trials, main characters learn to find joy in simple things. Director has chosen a good close-up, in which, under the light of a candle, characters read Buddhist prayers. Close-up changes to far-off, by which we can see that characters are in tent in the middle of the housing area. Thus, German tourists have succeeded to overcome bondage to comfort pronounced at the beginning of the movie.

Analyzing philosophy as a “picturesque Japan” imago topic it is impossible not to say about oeuvre of A. Sokurov and his “Japanese stories”, in which it is presented the most indicative. A film called “Oriental elegy” can serve as an illustration of how European symbolists perceived Japan for a long time. The director refers to a theme of rethinking questions of life and death, decay of being and transience of time. Traditional Japanese lullaby with elements of noise, soft, but dark color saturation, mist - all this creates an effect of continuity between cinematic reality and a dream that intensifies viewer's compassion to characters. The island also symbolizes the archaic traditional Japanese culture, the loss of which the author regrets as of the “lost paradise”.

An attempt to rethink Japanese philosophical attitude to an ethical component of being can also be seen in a movie “A Humble Life”. The author's idea was in pseudo documental filming of an elderly kimono seamstress, and filming space is filled with the main means of expressiveness (special angle, plenty of close-ups, a game of chiaroscuro). Main themes that the author tries to uncover are typical to Sokurov relativity and at the same time transience of time, the Japanese ability to reconcile oneself with own destiny, silent expectation of own death in day-to-day affairs. The image of “picturesque Japan” also manifests itself in off-screen music, which is modern conversion of traditional Japanese compositions.

picturesque japan image film

Conclusions and suggestions

Imagology is interdisciplinary school that study one culture's representations in consciousness of other culture's representatives. Cinema as one of the most popular modern arts broadcasts and creates new images simultaneously. It is expediently to use an imagological approach to study the Japan image in cinematic texts of European production.

The “picturesque Japan” imagotype as a symbolic construct includes a row of specific images. In European feature film, there can be highlighted such main themes of “picturesque Japan” representation as feudal Japan, Japanese aesthetics, art and philosophy. Each of imago-topics has its own row of semantic images.

Feudal Japan theme is represented through idealized images of a samurai and a geisha. Aesthetical principles affect the main means of artistic expression to which European directors refer. Japanese art is represented mainly with traditional kinds (calligraphy, Kabuki Theater, ikebana), but one can also meet Japanese avant-garde representatives (butoh). Referring to the sources of Japanese worldview, European directors accent on Zen Buddhism, Confucianism, Shintoism, rethinking Japanese understanding of time, life and death.

The “picturesque Japan” imagotype was formed in the middle of the nineteenth century and for already more than a hundred years, with short periods of disinterest, remains the most demanded amongst European directors. Continuing study of Japan image in European feature film we should consider a “yellow peril” myth as another Japanese imagotype in European consciousness.

References

1. Chkhartishvilli G. Image of the Japanese in Russian literature // Znamia, 1996 - Banner, 9 - pp. 188-200.

2. Molodyakov V. An Image of Japan in Europe and Russia of the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century - the Beginning of the Twentieth Century. - Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1996 - 184 p.

3. Tymofeyenko A. Japan represented in western military films shot in the mid to late 20th century // Bulletin of KhSADA, 2017. - ¹5 - pp. 157-162

4. King J. Under Foreign Eyes: Western Cinematic Adaptations of Postwar Japan. - Alresford: John Hunt Publishing, 2012. - 337 p.

5. Littlewood I. The Idea of Japan: Western Images, Western Myths - Chicago: R. Dee. - 236 p.

6. Roston J. Japanese-Americans in U.S. Films: The Influence of the Office of War Information on the Portrayal of Japanese-Americans in the U.S. Films of World War II, 1942-1945. - Montreal: McGill University, 1983. - 233 p.

7. Wilkinson E Japan versus Europe: a history of misunderstanding. - Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1983 - 288 p.

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