Substantiation of hemp seeds storage and processing technologies for functional, dietary and specialty products. Review

In (Teh et al., 2016), hemp protein isolates were hydrolyzed using proteases (AFP, HT, ProG, actinidin, and zingibain). Physical properties of hydrolysates were evaluated by particle size, zeta potential and surface hydrophobicity. HT protease had the highest rate of caseinolytic activity at the lowest concentration, 0.1 mg/ml, compared to other proteases that required concentration of 100 mg/ml to achieve their maximum rate of caseinolytic activity. This led to the highest degree of hydrolysis of hemp protein isolate as affected by HT protease in the SDS-PAGE profiles. Among all proteases and substrates, HT resulted in the highest biological activity generated from alkali extracted hemp protein isolate in the shortest time (2 hours) compared to the other protease preparations.

In (Girgih et al., 2013), hemp seed protein hydrolysate was produced through simulated gastrointestinal tract digestion of hemp protein isolate, followed by partial purification and separation into eight peptide fractions. The peptide fractions exhibited higher oxygen radical absorbance capacity as well as scavenging of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, superoxide and hydroxyl radicals when compared to hemp seed protein hydrolysate. Radical scavenging activities of the fractionated peptides increased as content of hydrophobic amino acids or elution time was increased, with the exception of hydroxyl radical scavenging that showed decreased trend. Although glutathione, hemp seed protein hydrolysate and peptide fractions possessed low ferric ion reducing ability, all of them had strong (>60%) metal chelating activities. Inhibition of linoleic acid oxidation using some of the hemp seed protein hydrolysate peptide fractions was higher at 1 mg/ml when compared to that observed at 0.1 mg/ml peptide concentration. Peptide separation resulted in higher concentration of some hydrophobic amino acids (especially proline, leucine and isoleucine) in the fractions when compared to hemp seed protein hydrolysate.

It was found in (Mamone et al., 2019) that hemp-based food products were considered less allergenic than those based on other edible seeds. High purity grade hemp flour and hemp protein isolate were derived from defatted hemp cakes, residues of hemp oil extract. The resulting hemp protein isolate contained almost 86% protein, represented mainly by the storage protein edestin (which accounted for 70% of the total protein). In vitro hemp protein digestibility was determined using a static model of gastrointestinal digestion. Hemp flour and hemp protein isolate showed a high degree of digestibility. The survival of potential biologically active and/or allergenic peptide sequences in digests was investigated by peptidomic analysis. Only a limited number of sequences survived gastrointestinal digestion. All known hemp allergens, including the major thaumatin-like protein, were entirely eliminated by the hemp protein isolate production process. These data support the use of hemp protein isolate as an ingredient for hypoallergenic foods.

According to (Potin et al., 2020), hemp seeds were found to contain considerable amounts of nutrients in the hemp kernel and in its derivative products 26% of protein and 36% of oil, respectively. The authors presented the current state of knowledge about the hemp kernel in terms of its composition, nutritional value, extraction, physicochemical, functional and biological properties. Various extraction methods have been proposed to extract major hemp protein fractions from the hemp cake. The protein obtained from hemp flour is classified as globulins and albumins and contains highly digestible (about 90%) essential amino acids. The authors emphasize that hemp protein hydrolysates have a wide range of health-promoting biological activities, such as antioxidant properties, metal chelation, antihypertensive, hypoglycemic properties, etc.

Raikos with co-authors (2015) investigated the effect of heat treatments on the denaturation and oxidative stability of hemp seed protein during simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Heat-denatured hemp protein isolate solutions were prepared by heating hemp protein isolate (2 mg/ml, pH 6.8) to 40, 60, 80 and 100 °C for 10 min. Heat-induced denaturation of the protein isolates was monitored by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Heating hemp protein isolate at temperatures above 80 °C significantly reduced solubility and led to the formation of large protein aggregates. Additionally, the oxidative stability of the resulting peptides was investigated. Heating did not significantly affect the formation of oxidation products. The results suggest that heat treatments should ideally unfold below 80 °C in order to preserve heat stability and solubility of hemp protein isolate.

In (Pojic et al., 2014), hemp proteins have been found to form high-quality emulsions similar to those of milk-based emulsions. A novel hemp protein concentrate has been shown to have >70% solubility at pH 4.0-6.0, whereas most plant proteins are typically insoluble. Addition of hemp protein to diet led to reduced pathological intensity of renal disease and cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, hemp seed enzymatic hydrolysates exhibited antioxidant and antihypertensive properties. According to the authors, hemp proteins and hydrolysates have the potential to be used as ingredients to formulate functional foods.

Dapcevic-Hadnadev with co-authors (2020) identified the ability of hemp protein to act as a functional agent in a variety of foods. The role of hemp protein as an emulsifier, foaming, film-forming and gelling agent creates the potential for replacing synthetic agents with natural ones. Studies have revealed a biological functionality of hemp proteins, i.e. application of enzymatic hydrolysis for the production of biologically active peptides.

Summarizing information in section 4, it should be noted that the reviewed publications deal superficially with the relationship between the factors of material preparation, production process variables of hemp foods, storage conditions and time in terms of the content of functional and biologically active components.

Aspects of using hemp seeds and its derivative products

Foods containing hemp seeds and oil are currently marketed worldwide for both animal and human nutrition. It was estimated that the global market for hemp consists of more than 25,000 products (Cerino et al., 2020). Hemp seeds are widely used in the production of kernel, oil, flour, protein, milk, animal feed, etc. (Serkov et al., 2011; Pojic et al., 2014; Karus et al., 2004; Leson, 2006; Kolodziejczyk et al., 2012; Cherney et al., 2016; Fike, 2016; Schluttenhofer et al., 2017; Klir et al., 2019; Williams, 2019; Leonard et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2020; Della Rocca et al., 2020; Crini et al., 2020; Farinon et al., 2020). Hemp seeds or their ingredients are added to beverages, for example, in the brewing and wine industry, as well as to neutral products (Cerino et al., 2020). In Latvia (Ivanovs et al., 2017), for example, crushed hemp seeds see heavy use in the manufacture of butter-based delicacy paste. Hemp oil is used for cosmetics and personal care items, paints, printing inks, detergents and solvents. In addition to food products, hemp flour is used in animal and poultry husbandry (Silversides et al., 2005). Hemp seeds and their derivative products have been scientifically proven to have a curative, health-improving and rehabilitative effect on the human body (Noelia et al., 2019; Metwally et al., 2021; Valizadehderakhshan et al., 2021).

Table 12 shows example uses of hemp seeds and their derivative products in technologies of functional, dietary and specialty products.

Summarizing the data in Table 12, the following should be noted:

Utilization of hemp seeds and their derivatives in various food technologies enhances the biological and nutritional value, functional and sensory properties of finished products;

Adding hemp derivative products to the formulation of baked goods increases their shelf life;

Utilization of hemp derivative products in bakery technologies ensures decreased amounts of gluten in finished products, which is relevant in modern conditions.

Table 12. Utilization of hemp seeds and their derivative products as a functional component

Product or semifinished product	Hemp supplement content	Efficiency	Reference
Mixed rye- wheat bread	10% of wheat flour replaced with hemp flour	Fermentation property increased by 42%, specific volume by 26.3% and finished product porosity by 10.9%. Dough, proofing and baking time reduced by 30%. 150 g of this product meets the daily requirement for polyunsaturated fatty acids.	Samofalova et al., 2004
Wheat bread	Hemp/wheat flour ratio 10/90	Increased nutritional value. Increased content of proteins, macro- and microelements, especially iron. Decreased gluten content.	Pojic M. et al., 2015
Wheat bread	15% of hemp flour, 4% of hemp kernel and 8% of hemp oil	Increased content of proteins, essential fatty acids, dietary fiber. Decreased gluten content. Increased shelf life of bread.	Bдdдrдu Carmen et al., 2018
Wheat bread	50% of hemp flour	Increased protein content (13.3819.29 g/100 g). Change in the hardness of bread crust due to a decrease in bread stability index from 1.12 to 0.05. Increase in crumb browning index from 29.69 to 46.26. Increase in total polyphenols from 256.43 to 673.59 mg GAE/kg. Formation of furan derivatives (furfuryl alcohol, furfuryl aldehyde, hydroxymethylfurfural).	Mikulec et al., 2019
Wheat bread	10% of hemp flour	Intensification of dough maturation. Production time reduced by 8-20 minutes. Reduced calorie content due to low starch content. Product consumption compensates the daily requirement of the human body for proteins by 9.5%, fats by 5.5%, fiber by 13.6%, га-3 and га-6 fatty acids by 37 and 29%, respectively. Increased content of B vitamins and minerals (phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, iron).	Falendysh et al., 2019
Wheat bread and bakery products	10% of hemp kernel or 5% of hemp protein	Reduced baking, convexity losses of baked goods. Increased nutritional value of the finished product.	Ruban et al., 2016
Gluten-free bread	20% of hemp protein	Increase in fiber levels from 15.2 to g/kg and dietary fiber from 29.3 to g/kg. Increase in bread volume	Korus et al., 2017
	concentrate and flour	from 633 to 878 ml. Improved organoleptic characteristics (color and taste). Limited product staling through reduced rate of amyl pectin recrystallization during storage.
Gluten-free bread	Non-conventional starter culture using hemp, chia and quinoa flour	Reduced pH, specific volume and staling rate of the finished product. Increased bread porosity.	Jagelaviciute et al., 2021
Wholewheat bread	5, 7, 10% of hemp flour	Product crumb and crust browning. More uniform crumb structure. Providing the finished product with a light nutty aroma and pleasing savor. Protein content increased by 4-4.4%. Content of natural food sorbents in the product increased by 17.2%. Reduced bread brittleness. Soft product for 2448 hours.	Bazhai- Zhezherun et al., 2020
Bread sticks	15% hemp cake flour	Water absorption capacity of the resulting bake mix increased by 6%. Dough balls running increased by 7.4%. Carbon dioxide generation during dough fermentation (180 min) reduced by 16%. Titratable acidity increased by 16%.	Iorgacheva et al., 2020
Pasta	5% of semolina flour replaced with hemp flour	Increased protein, fat and crude fiber content. Improved functional properties (antioxidant activity, increased content of macro-, microelements and phenolic compounds). Consistent cooking performance of pasta. Reduced cooking time, product surface stickiness.	Pojic et al., 2014
Gluten-free crackers	20% of hemp flour	Enriched with minerals, fiber (39249%) and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Decreased carbohydrate content (8.442.3%). Increased antioxidant properties.	Radocaj et al., 2014
Gluten-free sugar cookies	Hemp/cornmeal ratio 80:20	Improved organoleptic properties (texture and physicochemical properties).	Lukin et al., 2017
Shortbread cookies	20% of hemp cake	Increased cookie strength and porosity, moisture content increased by 0.50.8%, wetness index by 10-15%. Enriched with complete protein, chlorophyll, vitamins and minerals. Developed cookies have functional properties. 100 g of cookies covers the daily human need for dietary fiber by 11-16%.	Holia et al., 2018
Cookies	20% of hemp flour (raw and roasted)	Increased percentage of protein, oil, ash, phenols and antioxidant activity. Decreased hardness of products.	Nilgьn et al., 2020
Konoplyana Nasoloda (Hemp Delight) cupcake	34% of hemp flour	Increased nutritional value of finished products. High organoleptic quality indicators.	Tkachenko, 2018; 2020
Semi finished minced Meat products	10% of hemp flour	Increased content of lipids (by 2.2%), magnesium (2.4 times) and iron (1.5 times).	Perekhodova et al., 2017
Chopped beef liver products	15% of hemp flour and emulsified hemp oil	Increased water-binding and waterholding capacity of the product. Improved fat absorbing, emulsifying capacity and emulsion stability.	Stoporeva et al., 2018
Liver pate	17% of hemp seeds	Increased fat content and nutritional value of the product. Improved fatty acid composition and sensory properties (hardness, softness and stickiness).	Zajqc et al., 2018
Milk drink	Hemp seeds	Increased prebiotic activity. The content of biologically active compounds is increased due to the inhibited enteropathogen growth and high levels of acetate, propionate and butyrate produced during fermentation.	Nissen et al., 2020

In addition to the foods listed in Table 12, hemp seeds are also used in the production of hemp oil softgel capsules, hemp gummies (Canada), roasted hemp seeds with sea salt, hemp jelly beans, energy drinks, hemp tea, hemp chewing gums, hemp honey, coffee beans and hemp kernel (USA), hemp lager beer, hemp protein bars (UK), hemp candies, hemp chocolate and hemp pads (Netherlands) (Sova et al., 2020).

It is essential that the technology of composite food products provide antimicrobial and antioxidant properties throughout the guaranteed shelf life (Oseyko et al., 2019).

Bartkiene with co-authors (2020) proposes fermentation with Pediococcus acidilactici, P. pentosaceus, Lactobacillus casei and L. uvarum strains, as well as ultrasonic treatment of hemp kernel paste. It includes an assessment of the content of biogenic amines and antimicrobial properties of the derivative products. Combined fermentation and ultrasonic treatment helps lower the total bacteria count in the hemp kernel paste. The treated hemp kernel was found to be rich in biogenic amines, 639.87 mg/kg. Pure lactic acid bacteria showed a reduction in a broad spectrum of pathogens. However, the hemp kernel paste exhibited a very low antimicrobial activity and formulated emulsion did not exhibit any antimicrobial properties. Treatment with selected LAB can be recommended for preparation of stable emulsions, and the most acceptable beverages can be obtained using L. uvarum strain.

Frassinetti and co-authors (2018) evaluated the antioxidant effect of hemp seeds and sprouts after 3 and 5 days of germination. Total polyphenols, flavonoids and flavonols content expressed on a dry basis were highest in sprouts. A number of analyses including cellular antioxidant activity in red blood cells and hemolysis test showed a higher antioxidant activity in sprouts than in seeds. Main polyphenol (caffeoyltyramine) was identified in hemp seeds and of ю-6 (linoleic acid) was identified in sprouts. Therefore, hemp seeds and sprouts can have beneficial effects on human body and should be investigated as a potential functional food.

Siano with co-authors (2019) determined chemical and biochemical characteristics including phytosterol composition, total phenolics, antioxidant activity, and content of macro- and microelements of edible hemp resources such as seeds, oil, and flour. Hemp seeds, flour, and oil contained 767±41, 744±29, and 21±5 mg GAE/kg of total polyphenols, respectively. The antioxidant potential of hemp flour and seeds was higher than that of oil. K and Mg were the most abundant macroelements, particularly in flour, 5064.45 and 2310.54 mg/kg, respectively.



Conclusion

Hemp seeds and their derivative products are still insufficiently used in food technologies such as cereals, pasta, confectionery, food concentrate, meat and dairy and fermentation. In the short term, the theoretical, scientific and practical insights presented in this review should be used in integrated solutions for the processing of environmentally sound industrial and medical hemp seeds.

It is essential that further research be conducted on the use of drugs to regulate the antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of functional, dietary and specialty products is of paramount importance.



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