Problems of the non treaty based mutual legal assistance on criminal cases between the states
Unification of the criminal legislation of countries on the basis of international bilateral agreements. The specifics of the execution of foreign judicial authorities on the transfer of evidence in the absence of agreements on mutual legal assistance.
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Problems of the non treaty based mutual legal assistance on criminal cases between the states
Matanat Asgarova Matanat Asgarova, Ph.D. in Law, Associate Professor of the Academy of Justice of the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Azerbaijan, councilor of Justice
Introduction
Problem statement. Development of the public relations demands rapprochements and mutual harmonization of the legislation of states. Development of the public relations by- turn, stipulate for fight against crime which provides cooperation of the states differing in an originality of legal systems in criminal policy and justice. Cooperation in justice is carried out also by governing legal assistance in the criminal justice field on the basis of bilateral and multilateral international treaties on MLA on criminal cases and on non-treaty basis. At present, not all states are covered by treaties on legal assistance, or the treaties do not cover all procedural and other actions in a criminal case. Therefore, problems of legal assistance in criminal matters between States remain relevant.
Analysis of the recent research and publication. There are numerous works on the study of the problems of providing legal assistance on a contractual basis. The problems of providing legal assistance in criminal cases on a non-contractual basis were not the direct subjects of research. The works of such scientists as Oliver Borgers, Madeleine Renaud McCarthy Tetrault LLP, Marc Henzelin, Els De Busser, T. Markus Funk Partner and Perkins Coie were analyzed. При исследовании проблемы были анализированы исторические материалы Азербайджанской Республики и законодательство ряда стран, международные акты. In researching of the problem were studied the historical materials of the Republic of Azerbaijan and the legislation of a number of countries, international acts.
Formulation of the purpose of the article. The aim of this article is developing proposals for resolving problems of non-contractual legal assistance.
From the history of governing of legal assistance on non-treaty base
The institute of legal assistance between the states on criminal cases was connected with history and political tendencies in the state. During historical development of legal assistance institute, the institute always carried on itself influence of political interventions, connected with concept, so-called political crimes, an extradition of political prisoners, etc.
At the conclusion of treaties on peace, for example the Article YII of the Tractate of Istanbul between Russia and the Ottoman Empire dated July 3, 17001, the Article YI of the Treaty of Ganja between the Russian Empire and the Iranian State of March 10, 17352, capitulations, for example, the Article II of the Treaty of surrender between the Safavid state and France of September 14, 17083, trade, for example the Article X of the Treaty of Versailles between the Safavid state and France on August 15, 17154, political treaties, for example the Article 6 of the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji between Russia and the Ottoman Empire on July 10, 17745 etc. concerned also questions of jurisdiction, surrender of criminals, etc. Almost in all contracts is felt the right of powerfulness and beaters. It was provided withdrawals from a local jurisdiction concerning the citizens in some contracts or special norms on conducting legal proceedings with participation of the representative of the accused citizenship and other questions of procedural character. Sometimes procedural questions on criminal cases contained and in other contracts on trade, etc.
The norms on the jurisdiction of individual cases in relation to their nationals can be found in political and commercial treaties, for example the Articles YII, YII of the Treaty of Turkmenchay between Russia and Iran dated February 10, 18286, the Article YIII of the Treaty of Jassy between Russia and the Ottoman Empire of December 29, 17917, the Article III of the Political and commercial treaty between Iran and England dated of January 4, 18018.
The provision of legal assistance was part of the powers of the central authorities or the occupying state. For example, after accession of the Azerbaij ani khanates to Russia questions of legal assistance on criminal matters were regulated generally by Russian laws, the contract of the Russian Empire belonged and to Azerbaijan. The Russian legislation of XYIII century contained special norms on legal assistance between the states on criminal cases. Judicial Regulations of Russia and the arguments which they are based on from November 20, 1864 regulated in detail the jurisdictional issues of the jurisdiction of criminal cases against foreigners, diplomats, etc.9
Legal assistance between the states was formed as part of trade relations and regulated questions mainly of civil law. But it is possible to find in trade agreements of the states also some aspects of legal assistance on criminal cases and criminal trial. Till the XIX century legal assistance on criminal cases between the states was limited only to interaction in questions of extradition of criminals and some criminal procedure aspects of legal assistance. Procedural questions of legal assistance were connected with jurisdiction of criminal cases about citizens of other states, participation in criminal trial of the representative of the foreign state, etc.
In the first Criminal Procedure Code of Azerbaijan SSR there are no norms on legal assistance. After amendments to the 1936 Constitution by the law from Februaryl, 1944 the Article 18-a, each Union republic has the right to enter into direct relations with foreigh states and to conclude agreements and exchange diplomatic and consular representatives with them. But, this right had formal character. Azerbaijan SSR in fact didn't participate in the international relations independently and through the central bodies of USSR, but executed personal reguests of the foreign states under the direction of and control of the central bodies of the USSR10.
Legal assistance on criminal cases between the states in AR took place a way from elementary delivery of fluent serfs, single assistance in a diplomatic way to the institutionalized legal assistance on the basis of multilateral and bilateral contracts with other states, from lack of a legislative basis to codification a legal assistance governing questions, from inclusion of separate norms on separate aspects of legal assistance to the treaties of friendship, the peace, cooperation or even capitulation to the conclusion of special bilateral contracts on governing legal assistance on criminal matters. The history shows that governing legal assistance between the states in the presence of contracts or absence of contracts on legal assistance is created problems of subjective and legislative character. Integration processes, internationalization of crime create new problems in governing legal assistance on criminal cases which demand further improvement and development of this institute considering historical experience.
The international bases of governing legal assistance on a non-treaty basis
Modern transnational character of crime is caused by commitment of separate criminal actions in territories of several states, a different nationality and civil accessory of accomplices of crimes, finding of proofs of crimes in the territory of various states. Under such circumstances of justice proceeding on these crimes demands the broadest cooperation of the relevant states. The international cooperation on governing legal assistance on criminal cases is the obligation of the state, which demands execution at the high level.
As practice shows, the separate problems between the states which aren't connected by contracts or conventions on governing legal assistance or on execution of separate requests are created a beyond the volume problems.
Cooperation of the states is one of the fundamental principles of international law which is reflected in the part 3 article 1 of the Charter of the UN11.
Cooperation of the states is carried out within multilateral and bilateral contracts, but absence of such contracts doesn't exclude using other forms of cooperation. Legal assistance between the states is one of cooperation areas of the states, mentioned in the part 3 of the Article 1of the Charter of the UN and can be govern in the absence of multilateral and bilateral contracts. Usually, legal assistance between the states in the absence of contracts is governed with observance of the principle of reciprocity. The principle of reciprocity is apparent from the principle of sovereign equality of the states, which demands the conclusion of contracts on the basis of equality and mutual benefit.
According to the Declaration on the principles of international law concerning friendly relations and cooperation between states in accordance with the UN Charter12, sovereign equality includes such elements as judicially equality of the states, the duty states to comply fully and in good faith with its international obligations and to live in peace with other states. The principle of reciprocity, proceeding from the principle of sovereign equality of the states in the relations between the states, is an imperative norm (jus cogens) of international law. According to the Article 53 Vienna Convention “On the law of treaties” from 196913, a treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law. For the purposes of the present Convention, a peremptory norm of general international law is a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. The principle of sovereign equality and cooperation of the state's demands from them cooperation also in the absence of concrete contracts and other normative documents. It is possible to establish that applying the principle of reciprocity to situations of governing legal assistance between the states in the absence of the contract the states have to execute a request about governing legal assistance, with the proviso execution of such inquiries by the requesting state.
The concept of sovereign equality includes such elements as judicial equality of the states; complying fully and in good faith with its international obligations and to live in peace with other States. The principle of reciprocity, based on the principle of the sovereign equality of states in relations between states, is a peremptory norm (jus cogens) of international law. According to the Article 53 of the Vienna Convention, a treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law. A peremptory norm of general international law is a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character.
The principle of sovereign equality and cooperation of states requires them to cooperate even in the absence of specific treaties and other normative documents. Applying the principle of reciprocity to situations of providing legal assistance between states in the absence of a treaty, it can be stated that a state must comply with a request for legal assistance, subject to the execution of such requests the requesting state.
Governing legal assistance on non-treaty base
Letters Requests or Letters Rogatory. The legislation of the certain countries provides governing legal assistance on the basis of court request in the absence of the contract on legal assistance. The foreign legislation allocates two concepts the Letters Requests (inquiry) and Letters Rogatory (commission), and sometimes and Letters Rogatory Requests. For example, the Canada Evidence Act14 uses “the request of a foreign state” and it calls “the letters rogatory request” if there is no contract between the states. According to the Canada legislation Letters rogatory is applied in case of absence of any order in relation to the evidence and sent from a court or tribunal outside Canada in which the civil, commercial or criminal matter is pending.
Oliver Borgers and Madeleine Renaud consider that the term “letter of request” is used interchangeably with “letter rogatory”. In the absence of an MLAT that is enforceable pursuant to Canadian enabling legislation, a foreign jurisdiction seeking to obtain evidence located in Canada had to resort to the use of rather inefficient and ineffective instruments known as “letters rogatory”. Letters rogatory, which may be used in either civil or criminal matters, are formal requests by a court or authority in one jurisdiction for the legal assistance of a court or authority in another jurisdiction. Requests for assistance pursuant to letters rogatory are executed on the basis of comity between nations15.
Some conventions, for example the Hague Convention on the taking of evidence abroad in civil or commercial matters16 and national laws, for example the Japan Law for International Assistance in Investigation and Other Related Matters, uses the term “request”17, Chapter II of the European Convention “On Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters” calls «Letters rogatory»18.
The European Convention on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters associates legal assistance with any assignments concerning criminal matters and sent by the legal authorities of the requesting Party in order to obtain testimony or transfer material evidence, materials or documents.
According to the subsection 2 of the Article 1 of the Treaty “On MLA in criminal matters” between the United Kingdom and Jordan19, assistance shall be provided without regard to whether the conduct that is the subject of the request would be punishable under the domestic laws of both Contracting States. Where a request is made for search and seizure of evidence, restraint or confiscation of the proceeds of crime, the Requested State may render the assistance in accordance with its domestic law.
The Agreement “On extradition between the European Union and the United States of America20 at the limitations of assistance calls punishable of offences under the laws of both countries (requesting and requested).
According to the Article 5 of the European Convention on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters, any Contracting Party may reserve the right to make the execution of letters rogatory for search or seizure of property dependent on one or more of the following conditions: a) that the offence motivating the letters rogatory is punishable under both the law of the requesting Party and the law of the requested Party; b) that the offence motivating the letters rogatory is an extraditable offence in the requested country; c) that execution of the letters rogatory is consistent with the law of the requested Party.
Governing legal assistance on non-treaty basis through diplomatic channels. Even in bilateral contracts on legal assistance sometimes are stipulate assistance in the diplomatic way, or through the central bodies by diplomatic channels21. In the majority of contracts on legal assistance on criminal matters are determined the central communication bodies or in some cases are defined direct appeals to appropriate authorities of other state22.
The Hague Convention “On Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents”23 establishes of certifying the authenticity of foreign documents, i.e. essential elements, signature of the officials seal etc. In case of doubts the required party addresses to consulate or diplomatic mission of the state in the requesting state with a request to certify its authenticity. The authenticity is identity by the referring of the certificate on the document itself or on an “allonge”- especially stamp. A document emanating from the courts are included in structure of official documents.
Evidence, emanating from the foreign states at the investigation and court hearings hall be verified on the request of the participants in criminal proceedings on the basis the general of provisions according to the Article 86 CPC Ukraine24 and the Article 124 of the CPC of Azerbaijan25. According to the Article 87 of the CPC of Ukraine and Article 125.1 of the CPC of Azerbaijan the proof has to be free from doubts to the accuracy and source of the information, to the circumstances in which they were obtained. In case of appearing such doubts a participant of the proceeding shall to applicant on verification of the documents, which is carried out also by legalization.
In the absence of the contract on legal assistance on criminal matters judicial authorities of the foreign state address to bodies of the other states through diplomatic bodies. Judicial authorities of the requesting state addresses to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the state, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs by-turn through the embassy or consulate to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the state. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs sends a rogatory to the corresponding central authority, according to the Law with a request for its execution. In this case all documents have to undergo procedure of consular legalization.
In certain cases execution of foreign judicial authorities rogatory depends on political will, i.e. on the friendly relations between the states, on the level of democratic character of judicial system, expediency of extradition from the political point of view, etc.
These problems are characteristic and for governing on treaty basis legal assistance. it is possible to track such tendencies at extradition of criminals. For example, according to the Prosecutor General's Office of the RF, USA refused execution about 20 criminals to Russia during ten years26.
It is the official representative opinion of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the RF that «USA purposefully ignores requests of the RF about an extradition of the leader terrorist of underground band Ilyas Akhmadov and especially dangerous criminal Tamaz Nalbandov. Both are under the international search more than ten years and thus freely live in the USA27. Other problem is the dual citizenship of the accused28.
The principle of reciprocity in governing legal assistance on non-treaty bases. The Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters29 is of great importance for standardization of the legislation in the field of mutual governing legal assistance in case of absence contract and legal basis of the governing legal assistance in the relations between the states, it can be governed as reciprocity.
Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Justice and its Optional Protocol on the proceeds of crime defines that a request for assistance and the documents in support thereof, as well as documents or other material supplied in response to such a request, shall not require certification or authentication.
Proceeding from the analysis of the legislation it is possible to note that if there isn't corresponding international treaty on governing legal assistance, the legislation of the USA uses the concepts rogatory (instruction) and request (inquiry) as synonyms and another interesting moment is that a tribunal in the United States directly can address to the foreign or international tribunal, officer, or agency and can receive its return in the same manner30.
T. Markus Funk Partner, Perkins Coie considers that there are proceedings two main means of obtaining proofs for criminal proceeding: MLA Treaty (MLAT) and a letter rogatory. For civil proceedings, there is only a letter rogatory. Evidence obtained from abroad through these tools may be presented as part of court proceedings, requiring U.S. judges to be familiar with the legal issues implicated by transnational requests for assistance. In addition, judges should be aware that diplomacy, executive agreements, and information exchange through informal communications also play an important role in transnational criminal investigations and civil litigation. Letters rogatory, in contrast, have a considerably broader reach than MLATs: they can be issued by U.S. federal and state courts as part of criminal, civil, and administrative proceedings, and they can be sent to U.S. federal and state courts by any foreign or international tribunal or “interested person”31. criminal legislation judicial agreement international
It is intesting that in absence of treaty offers rely on its own domestic legislation and to accept informal declarations of reciprocity, if the requesting party shows that the standards for its procedure are comparable to a democratic country32. We consider it is possible to rely on own domestic legislation in separate cases reasoning from history of relations, criminal cases and subject of assistance.
To a large extent, reciprocity in this sense means parallelism or symmetry between the two processes in the requested and requesting states”.
Conclusion
Governing legal assistance on non-treaty based creates separate problems, some of which are inherent also in governing legal assistance on a treaty basis. The principle of double punish ability is applied to almost all cases of governing legal assistance. We consider that it is necessary to proceed from flexibility of the principle of double punish ability in governing legal assistance in the absence of treaty on legal assistance. Now there are integration processes and standardization of the criminal legislation of the certain states on the basis of international treaties. Illustrations are conventions on fight against terrorism in which are given the description of corpus delicti33,34,35. This tendency it is possible to track in the legislation of the European Union countries or the CIS. As shows the analysis of legislations of the certain states on governing legal assistance its execution depends on the required state if the matter concerns on application of coercive measures in the absence of the legal assistance treaty. Therefore, execution of rogatory of foreign judicial authorities about receiving and transfer of proofs, in the absence of MLA treaty, it is necessary to encourage, even if there is no double criminality with what is connected the rogatory.
Execution of directly received rogatory of foreign judicial authority in the absence of MLA treaty creates precedents of cooperation and helps further development of MLA.
Governing legal assistance in the absence of legal assistance treaty throw a diplomatic channel takes more time than execution of rogatories and occupies more bodies which are connected by the internal instructions, etc.
Governing of the legal assistance on non-treaty basis is fraught with separate problems and difficulties, such as certifications or authentications of the sent or received documents, dependence of rogatory execution on political will, i.e. on the friendly relations between the states, on the level of democratic character of judicial system, expediency of extradition from the political point of view, etc. Other problem is the dual citizenship accused even in the presence of the MLA treaty. Therefore, wider and active promotion of provisions of the Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Justice and its Optional Protocol on the proceeds of crime, which don't demand certification or the authentication of the sent or received documents through MLA will eliminate some problems.
One of tendency is the conclusion of multilateral treaties on governing legal assistance between the states of certain regions and group of the states. Such contracts are signed in the framework of the ASEAN36, South African Development Community37, Economic community of the West African States38, the Caribbean39. EU practice and legislation in relation to the European Investigation Order is a more developed and working tool40. Such multilateral treaties provide a unified approach to the concept and application of investigative and procedural actions and frees from the burden some procedures of mutual legal assistance between states and the conclusion of bilateral treaties. Now in connection with the emergence of the European Arrest warrant express the opinion that it will replace mutual legal assistance41.
At the existing group of the states on regional and other bases, reasoning from practice, for overcoming of problems at the governing legal assistance on criminal cases between the states follows proceeds from general provisions adopted at higher level at the level of groups of the states, at the level of multilateral international treaties with participation of the states or international organizations. Further steps to improve the provision of legal assistance can be the conclusion of treaties between groupings of states.
Bibliographic references
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Проблеми надання правової допомоги у кримінальних справах між державами на бездоговірній основі
Аскерова М.П.
Історія надання правової допомоги пройшла шлях від елементарної видачі кріпаків-втікачів, разового надання допомоги на рівні вищих посадових осіб держав та в дипломатичному порядку до інституалізованої правової допомоги на основі багатосторонніх та двосторонніх договорів, від відсутності законодавчої основи до кодифікації питань надання правової допомоги, від включення окремих норм про окремі аспекти правової допомоги у договорі про дружбу, мир, співпрацю або навіть капітуляцію до укладення спеціальних двосторонніх договорів про надання правової допомоги у кримінальних справах і певною мірою повторює історію двосторонніх відносин, історію самої держави. На даний момент не всі держави охоплені багатосторонніми та двосторонніми договорами про правову допомогу. Тому надання правової допомоги на бездоговірній основі залишається актуальним. Без договорів іноді виконання доручень іноземних судових органів залежить від політичної волі, тобто від дружніх відносин між державами, від рівня демократичності судової системи, доцільності видачі з політичної точки зору і т.д. Вважаємо, що з надання правової допомоги за відсутності договорів про правову допомогу слід виходити із гнучкості принципу подвійного визнання караності. Зараз тривають інтеграційні процеси та уніфікація кримінального та кримінально- процесуального законодавства або окремих інститутів окремих держав на підставі міжнародних договорів. Цю тенденцію можна простежити у законодавстві країн Євросоюзу, СНД, ASEAN, Південноафриканської спільноти розвитку, Економічного співтовариства західноафриканських держав, держав Карибського басейну. Виконання доручень іноземних судових органів про отримання та передачу доказів, за відсутності угод про взаємну правову допомогу, слід заохочувати, навіть якщо відсутнє подвійне визнання злочину, із чим пов'язане доручення, якщо не йдеться про застосування примусових заходів. Іншим позитивним моментом є те, що виконання безпосередньо отриманого доручення іноземного судового органу створює прецеденти співробітництва та допомагає подальшому розвитку взаємної правової допомоги. Надання правової допомоги за відсутності договору про правову допомогу дипломатичним шляхом створює проблеми, пов'язані з термінами виконання доручень та охоплює більшу кількість державних органів. Надання правової допомоги на бездоговірній основі загрожує окремими проблемами та труднощами, такими як засвідчення або посвідчення справжності надісланих чи отриманих документів. Тому ширша і активніша пропаганда положень Типового договору про взаємну допомогу в галузі кримінального правосуддя та його Факультативного протоколу щодо доходів від злочинів, які не вимагають засвідчення або посвідчення справжності відправлених чи отриманих документів у порядку взаємної правової допомоги, усуне деякі проблеми. Ще однією проблемою навіть за наявності угоди про взаємну правову допомогу є подвійне громадянство обвинувачених. При існуючому угрупованні держав з регіональних та інших підстав, для подолання проблем при наданні правової допомоги у кримінальних справах між державами слід виходити з більш загальних положень, прийнятих на вищому рівні, на рівні груп держав, на рівні багатосторонніх міжнародних договорів за участю держав або міжнародних організацій.
Ключові слова: правова допомога між державами, доручення, запит, допомога на бездоговірній основі, принцип взаємності, подвійна карність.
Резюме
Проблемы оказания правовой помощи по уголовным делам между государствами на бездоговорной основе
Аскерова М.П.
На данный момент не все государства охвачены договорами о правовой помощи и поэтому оказание правовой помощи на бездоговорной основе остается актуальным. В отсутствии договоров исполнение поручений иностранных судебных органов иногда зависит от политической воли, т.е. от дружеских отношений между государствами, от уровня демократичности судебной системы, целесообразности выдачи с политической точки зрения и т.д. При оказании правовой помощи при отсутствии договоров о правовой помощи следует исходить из гибкости принципа двойного признания наказуемости. Интеграционные процессы и унификация законодательства или же отдельных институтов прослеживаются в законодательстве стран Евросоюза, СНГ, ASEAN и т.д. и естественно помогает взаимной правовой помощи на бездоговорной основе.
Исполнение поручений иностранных судебных органов о получении и передаче доказательств на бездоговорной основе, следует поощрять, даже если отсутствует двойное признание преступления, с чем связано поручение, если речь не идет о применении принудительных мер.
Исполнение непосредственно полученного поручения иностранного судебного органа создает прецеденты сотрудничества и помогает дальнейшему развитию взаимной правовой помощи. Оказание правовой помощи на бездоговорной основе дипломатическим путем создает проблемы, связанные со сроками исполнения поручений и охватывает большее число государственных органов. Еще одной проблемой даже при наличии соглашения о взаимной правовой помощи является двойное гражданство обвиняемых. При существующей группировке государств по региональным и другим основаниям, для преодоления проблем при оказании правовой помощи по уголовным делам между государствами следует исходить из более общих положений, принятых на более высоком уровне, на уровне групп государств, на уровне многосторонних международных договоров с участием государств или международных организаций.
Ключевые слова: правовая помощь между государствами, поручение, запрос, помощь на бездоговорной основе, принцип взаимности, двойная наказуемость.
Summary
Problems of the non treaty based mutual legal assistance on criminal cases between the states.
Matanat Pasha Asgarova
At this globalization moment not, all states are coved by multilateral and bilateral contracts on legal assistance. Therefore, the non-treaty based legal assistance remains actual. In absence of contracts sometimes execution of foreign judicial authorities' requests depends on political will, i.e. on the friendly relations between the states, on the level of democratic character of judicial system, expediency of extradition from the political point of view etc. We consider that in the governing legal assistance in the absence of contracts should be proceed from flexibility of the principle of recognition of double criminality. At the existing group of the states on regional and other bases, for overcoming of problems at governing legal assistance on criminal cases between the states follows proceeds from general provisions adopted at higher level at the level of groups of the states, and a further step in this area could be treaties between groupings of states with the participation of states or international organizations.
Key words: legal assistance between states, request, letter rogatory, assistance on a non-treaty basis, the principle of reciprocity, double punishment.
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