Perception of culture-specific emotions: measurement and predictors

And hence, the research hypothesis “The general ability to perceive emotions and the cultural similarity among international students in the Russian Federation, have a positive significant relationship with the perception of Russian culture-specific emotions.” issupported.

The meta-analytic evidence for emotional recognition across cultures proves that the accurate recognition of emotions is better between individuals from the same national group. Moreover, the meta-analytic review confirmed the importance of language for emotion communication and recognition (Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002), and it may suggest that the findings provided by the semi-structured interviews in pre-test stage are correct. Therefore, the present study brings new evidence that when people from one culture share more similarities than differences with people from another culture, there are better chances of accurately perceiving their culture-specific non-verbal and verbal emotional expressions.

This study also provides new evidence of a significant positive relationship between living in the foreign country for a longer period of time and the accurate perception of culture-specific emotions in people from the foreign country. This relationship can be explained by the process of adaptation that a person experiences when they start living in a foreign country. Consequently, people may be able to accurately recognize emotional expressions that are different from their cultural standards, when they properly adapted and accepted the differences between cultures. However, it requires time to accomplish the process of cultural adaptation (Winkelman, 1994).

Furthermore, the present study confirmed that the group of students from former USSR countries perceived more similarities with Russian culture. Therefore, this result is consistent with previous studies of perceived cultural distance among international students in the Russian Federation (Galchenko &van de Vijver, 2007; Suanet & van de Vijver, 2009).

Consequently, the students from former USSR countries or former Soviet republics, perceived better the emotional expressions specific to Russian culture, i.e., these students reported higher levels of perception of (Russian) culture-specific emotions.

According to the overall results provided by Galchenko and van de Vijver (2007); and Suanet and van de Vijver (2009),the students from former USSR countries reported higher levels of adjustment with Russian culture. Thus, these findings may also ratify the important role of cultural adaptation (Winkelman, 1994) in the accurate perception of culture-specific emotions.

Nevertheless, the regional group of the sample was not found as a significant predictor for the perception of culture-specific emotions. Probably, the accurate perception of culture-specific emotions is just related to the subjective perceptual cultural similarities between individuals, and not to the nationalities within the groups.

The general Emotional Intelligence, Managing own emotions, Managing othersґ emotions and Utilization of emotions, were not found as statistically significant predictors for the perception of culture-specific emotions. This outcome may suggest that these abilities are not effective in order to accurately perceive emotions in a cross-cultural context.

The age of the respondents was not significantly related to the perception of culture-specific emotions. The existing literature on age differences in emotion perception accuracy supports evidence that younger adults recognize emotions in a higher degree than older adults (Gonзalves et al., 2018; Murry& Isaacowitz, 2017). However, respondents of the present study were mostly young students in their 20s, and no respondent was over 45 years old.

Furthermore, the gender was not revealed as a relevant predictor for the perception of culture-specific emotions, although there is previous evidence supporting that females accurately perceive emotions in a higher degree than males (Hall et al., 2000).

Conclusions

The present study confirmed the reliability and validity of “The Perception of Culture-specific Emotions Scale”, a novel 14-item self-report that measures the recognition of the overall culture-specific emotions in individuals from a different nationality and culture. Moreover, this is the first study to identify that not just the general ability to perceive emotions predicts the accurate perception of culture-specific emotions in others, but also the cultural similarity between individuals and living in the foreign country for a longer period of time.

However, some methodological limitations must be noted. The questionnaires used in the present study, including “The Perception of Culture-specific Emotions Scale”, were only available in English language, although the final sample consisted of respondents from 49 countries and English was not the native language of the majority. Besides, the last report on international students in Russia estimated that around 300,000 international students are studying in the Russian Federation (Civinini, 2018);thus, the targeted population size was large, and, therefore, the final sample of 114 respondents calculates a margin of error of 6% and a confidence level of 80%.Furthermore, the factorial validity evidence for “The Perception of Culture-specific Emotions Scale” must be complimented by other types of validities, e.g., convergent validity and discriminant validity (Stough et al., 2009).

In addition, some other significant limitations should be acknowledged. The present study considered as culture-specific emotions to the overall emotional expressions that are specific to a culture; therefore, no categories or labels of emotions (Engelen et al., 2009; Srinivasan & Martнnez, 2018) were analyzed. Moreover, this study was geared towards identifying the connection between the perception of culture-specific emotions and emotional intelligence; therefore, no relationship with social intelligence and cultural intelligence (Crowne, 2009)was analyzed. And the present study just focused on the perceptual measure of cultural distance; therefore, no dimension of national cultures (Hofstede, 2011) was analyzed.

Thus, the first important direction that further studies must implementis to consider the native language of the respondents, in order to adapt “The Perception of Culture-specific Emotions Scale” to their language. Moreover, it is recommended to decrease the margin of error and increase the confidence level, and to include a sample that represents the overall population of foreigners in a host country. Besides, future researches on perception of culture-specific emotions need to analyze and confirm other types of validities for “The Perception of Culture-specific Emotions Scale”. In addition, it is also recommended to examine the labels and categories of culture-specific emotions (Engelen et al., 2009; Srinivasan & Martнnez, 2018) and to adjust “The Perception of Culture-specific Emotions Scale” depending on the findings. Furthermore, it is important to consider other scales of emotional intelligence, e.g., the “Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test” (MSCEIT) (Mayer et al., 2003) and “The Emotional Quotient Inventory” (EQ-i)(Bar-On, 2006), in order to support the relationship between allelements of emotional intelligence and the perception of culture-specific emotions. And in order to correctly study this relationship based on cultural contexts, it is recommended to select indigenous scales of emotional intelligence (Afolabi, 2017; Batool & Khalid, 2011).Furthermore, to examine the relationship of the perception of culture-specific emotions with elements of social intelligence and cultural intelligence (Crowne, 2009).There is also a need to investigate the relationship between the dimensions of national cultures by Hofstede (2011) and the perception of culture-specific emotions. Finally, due to the potential evidence found in the analysis of the present study, it is also suggested to verify the significant relationship between cultural adaptation (Winkelman, 1994) and the perception of culture-specific emotions.

References

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Appendix A

The Perception of Culture-specific Emotions Scale.

The instruction: Please select the option “1” if you strongly disagree, the option “2” if you somewhat disagree, option “3” if you neither agree nor disagree, the “4” if you somewhat agree, and the “5” if you strongly agree.

1 = strongly disagree

2 = somewhat disagree

3 = neither agree nor disagree

4 = somewhat agree

5 = strongly agree

Table 5

1. There are moments when I cannot recognize what emotion the people from the host country are expressing.
1 2 3 4 5
2. I cannot understand the way that the people from the host country express their emotions, because they are not familiar with my cultural standards.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I find hard to recognize the facial gestures of the people from the host country and what emotion they are trying to express.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Sometimes I cannot perceive if a person from the host country is feeling happy or not.
1 2 3 4 5
5. For me, the emotions of the people from the host country are easy to recognize.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Normally, I can identify the emotional states of the people from the host country.
1 2 3 4 5
7. I am always aware of the facial emotional expressions of the people from the host country.
1 2 3 4 5
8. In some situations, the tone of voice of the people from the host country confuses me.
1 2 3 4 5
9. I consider totally understandable the way that people from the host country express their emotions.
1 2 3 4 5
10. In my perception, I cannot understand what the people from the host country are feeling, because they cannot communicate their emotions properly.
1 2 3 4 5
11. I am always certain of the non-verbal communication of the people from the host country.
1 2 3 4 5
12. I am never involved in situations of cultural misunderstanding related to misperception of emotions of the people from the host country.
1 2 3 4 5
13. There are occasions where I cannot relate some emotional expressions of the people from the host country with any emotion that I know.
1 2 3 4 5
14. I do have the ability to differentiate whether a person from the host country is pretending an emotion or not.
1 2 3 4 5

Appendix B

The Perception of Culture-specific Emotions Scale.

The instruction: Please select the option “1” if you strongly disagree, the option “2” if you somewhat disagree, option “3” if you neither agree nor disagree, the “4” if you somewhat agree, and the “5” if you strongly agree.

1 = strongly disagree

2 = somewhat disagree

3 = neither agree nor disagree

4 = somewhat agree

5 = strongly agree

Table 6

1. There are moments when I cannot recognize what emotion the people from Russia are expressing.
1 2 3 4 5
2. I cannot understand the way that the people from Russia express their emotions, because these expressions are not familiar with my cultural standards.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I find hard to recognize the facial gestures of the people from Russia and what emotion they are trying to express.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Sometimes I cannot perceive if a person from Russia is feeling happy or not.
1 2 3 4 5
5. For me, the emotions of the people from Russia are easy to recognize.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Normally, I can identify the emotional states of the people from Russia.
1 2 3 4 5
7. I am always aware of the facial emotional expressions of the people from Russia.
1 2 3 4 5
8. In some situations, the tone of voice of the people from Russia confuses me.
1 2 3 4 5
9. I consider totally understandable the way that people from Russia express their emotions.
1 2 3 4 5
10. In my perception, I cannot understand what the people from Russia are feeling, because they cannot communicate their emotions properly.
1 2 3 4 5
11. I am always certain of the non-verbal communication of the people from Russia.
1 2 3 4 5
12. I am never involved in situations of cultural misunderstanding related to misperception of emotions of the people from Russia.
1 2 3 4 5
13. There are occasions where I cannot relate some emotional expressions of the people from Russia with any emotion that I know.
1 2 3 4 5
14. I do have the ability to differentiate whether a person from Russia is pretending an emotion or not.
1 2 3 4 5

Appendix C

The Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) or The Assessing Emotions Scale.

The instruction: Each of the following items asks you about your emotions or reactions associated with emotions. After deciding whether a statement is generally true for you, use the 5-point scale to respond to the statement. Please circle the “1” if you strongly disagree that this is like you, the “2” if you somewhat disagree that this is like you, “3” if you neither agree nor disagree that this is like you, the “4” if you somewhat agree that this is like you, and the “5” if you strongly agree that this is like you.

1 = strongly disagree

2 = somewhat disagree

3 = neither agree nor disagree

4 = somewhat agree

5 = strongly agree

Table 7

1. I know when to speak about my personal problems to others.	1	2	3	4	5
2. When I am faced with obstacles, I remember times I faced similar obstacles and overcame them.	1	2	3	4	5
3. I expect that I will do well on most things I try.	1	2	3	4	5
4. Other people find it easy to confide in me.	1	2	3	4	5
5. I find it hard to understand the non-verbal messages of other people.	1	2	3	4	5
6. Some of the major events of my life have led me to re-evaluate what is important and not important.	1	2	3	4	5
7. When my mood changes, I see new possibilities.	1	2	3	4	5
8. Emotions are one of the things that make my life worth living.	1	2	3	4	5
9. I am aware of my emotions as I experience them.	1	2	3	4	5
10. I expect good things to happen.	1	2	3	4	5
11. I like to share my emotions with others.	1	2	3	4	5
12. When I experience a positive emotion, I know how to make it last.	1	2	3	4	5
13. I arrange events others enjoy.	1	2	3	4	5
14. I seek out activities that make me happy.	1	2	3	4	5
15. I am aware of the non-verbal messages I send to others.	1	2	3	4	5
16. I present myself in a way that makes a good impression on others.	1	2	3	4	5
17. When I am in a positive mood, solving problems is easy for me.	1	2	3	4	5
18. By looking at their facial expressions, I recognize the emotions people are experiencing.	1	2	3	4	5
19. I know why my emotions change.	1	2	3	4	5
20. When I am in a positive mood, I am able to come up with new ideas.	1	2	3	4	5
21. I have control over my emotions.	1	2	3	4	5
22. I easily recognize my emotions as I experience them.	1	2	3	4	5
23. I motivate myself by imagining a good outcome to tasks I take on.	1	2	3	4	5
24. I compliment others when they have done something well.	1	2	3	4	5
25. I am aware of the non-verbal messages other people send.	1	2	3	4	5
26. When another person tells me about an important event in his or her life, I almost feel as though I experienced this event myself.	1	2	3	4	5
27. When I feel a change in emotions, I tend to come up with new ideas.	1	2	3	4	5
28. When I am faced with a challenge, I give up because I believe I will fail.	1	2	3	4	5
29. I know what other people are feeling just by looking at them.	1	2	3	4	5
30. I help other people feel better when they are down.	1	2	3	4	5
31. I use good moods to help myself keep trying in the face of obstacles.	1	2	3	4	5
32. I can tell how people are feeling by listening to the tone of their voice.	1	2	3	4	5
33. It is difficult for me to understand why people feel the way they do.	1	2	3	4	5

Appendix D

Perceived Cultural Distance Questionnaire Scale.

The instruction: Please select on a seven-point scale a degree of difference or similarity between your culture and Russian culture.

1 = very different

2 = different

3 = rather different

4 = somewhat different, somewhat similar

5 = rather similar

6= similar

7= very similar

Table 9

1. How similar or different do you find the climate in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
2. How similar or different do you find the religion in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
3. How similar or different do you find the relation to family in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
4. How similar or different do you find the social contacts in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
5. How similar or different do you find the celebration in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
6. How similar or different do you find the food in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
7. How similar or different do you find the way to spend free time in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
8. How similar or different do you find the clothes in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
9. How similar or different do you find the public manners in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
10. How similar or different do you find the education in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
11. How similar or different do you find the amount of criminality in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
12. How similar or different do you find the mentality in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
13. How similar or different do you find the freedom in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
14. How similar or different do you find the way people talk to each other in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
15. How similar or different do you find the discrimination in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
16. How similar or different do you find the health services in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
17. How similar or different do you find the male-female differences in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
18. How similar or different do you find the politics in Russia and your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
19. How similar or different do you find a Russian language and language of your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
20. How similar or different do you find work relations in Russia and in your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
21. How similar or different do you find that people following the daily news in Russia and in your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
22. How similar or different do you find a Russian music and a music of your home country?	1	2	3	4	5	6	7

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