Socio-economic and political development of modern Asia

21

65,6

65,6

81,3

both kinds

6

18,8

18,8

100,0

Total

32

100,0

100,0

Most of the respondents ( 65. 6%) have houseplants.

Table IV - Factor analysis KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.	0,619
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity	Approx. Chi-Square	165,515
	df	55
	Sig.	,000

The measure of KMO test and Bartlett's test (KMO = 0.619; �2(55) = 165.52, p < 0.001) shows the possibility to identify that there are factors (trends) in the scale assessment ( identify latent variables).

Table V - Total Variance Explained

Factor	Initial Eigenvalues	Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings	Rotation Sums of Squared Loadingsa
	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total
1	4,487	40,792	40,792	3,168	28,8	28,801	3,712
2	1,856	16,874	57,666	2,287	20,8	49,6	2,974
3	,985	8,957	66,623
4	,876	7,962	74,585
5	,787	7,153	81,738
6	,637	5,795	87,532
7	,452	4,105	91,638
8	,397	3,611	95,249
9	,309	2,811	98,060
10	,148	1,343	99,404
11	,066	,596	100,000
Extraction Method: Maximum Likelihood.
a. When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance.

Two variances (factors) are defined, the answers are dispersed to 49.6%, the first factor stands for 28.8%, the second factor stands for 20.8%. Thus, we grouped similar variables into two dimensions.



Table VI - Statements grouped in Factor 1 and Factor 2 dimensions

Factor 1			Factor 2
When I am upset or stressed, I can feel better by spending some time outdoors "communing with nature	0,817	0,958	Sometimes I feel like parts of nature -- wind, or storms, or mountains -- have a personality of their own
My own interests usually seem to coincide with the position advocated by environmentalists	0,774	0,721	I feel myself inseparable from nature
I feel that I have a lot in common with other species	0,706	0,624	Learning about the natural world should be an important part of every child's upbringing
Living near wildlife (outdoors) is important to me; I would not want to live in a city all the time	0,660	0,436	If I had enough time or money, I would certainly devote some of it to working for environmental causes
I have never seen a work of art that is as beautiful as a work of nature, like a sunset or a mountain range	0,612
I believe that a lot of modern social problems can be solved by our returning to country life where people live in harmony with nature	0,561
Nature makes me feel joyful	,478	,447	Nature makes me feel joyful

Factor 1 loadings vary from 0.561 to 0.817 (0.688 on average). Factor loadings for Factor 2 vary from 0.436 to 0.958 ( 0.685 on average). The item �Nature makes me feel joyful� was equally loaded, i.e., we have cross loadings there, so this item was excluded from the following analysis and measurement of the variances.

Table VII - Factor Correlation Matrix

Factor	1	2
1	1,000	,479
2	0,48	1,000
Extraction Method: Maximum Likelihood. Rotation Method: Promax with Kaiser Normalization.

Correlation between the factors r = 0.48

We are facing the challenge to denote what is a common ground for the items in each of the groups. On this basis, we should name the groups. Factor 1 may sound like �Living in harmony with Nature�, Factor 2 may be "Participation in Nature�.

Factor 1 -- Living in harmony with Nature

When I am upset or stressed, I can feel better by spending some time outdoors communing with nature

My own interests usually seem to coincide with the position advocated by environmentalists

I feel that I have a lot in common with other species

Living near wildlife (outdoors) is important to me; I would not want to live in a city all the time

I have never seen a work of art that is as beautiful as a work of nature, like a sunset or a mountain range

I believe that a lot of modern social problems can be solved by our returning to country life where people live in harmony with nature

Table VIII - Reliability statitics, Factor 1

Cronbach's Alpha	Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items	N of Items
0,82	,833	6

Inner reliability of the scale �Living in harmony with Nature� (Factor 1) � = 0.82 (max = 1)

Factor 2 -- Participation in Nature

Sometimes I feel like parts of nature -- wind, or storms, or mountains -- have a personality of their own

I feel myself inseparable from nature

Learning about the natural world should be an important part of every child's upbringing

If I had enough time or money, I would certainly devote some of it to working for environmental causes

Table IX - Reliability statitics, Factor 2

Cronbach's Alpha	Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items	N of Items
0,74	,774	4

Inner reliability of the scale �Participation in Nature� (Factor 2) � = 0.82 (max =1) Learning about the natural world should be an important part of every child's upbringing

Table X - Descriptive Statistics

Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation	Skewness	Kurtosis
Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Std. Error	Statistic	Std. Error
2,17	5,00	3,95	0,74	-,361	,414	-,351	,809
3,50	5,00	4,74	0,43	-1,427	,414	,908	,809

Table X - Descriptive Statistics

	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation	Skewness	Kurtosis
	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Statistic	Std. Error	Statistic	Std. Error
factor1	32	2,17	5,00	3,95	0,74	-,361	,414	-,351	,809
factor2	32	3,50	5,00	4,74	0,43	-1,427	,414	,908	,809
Valid N (listwise)	32



For Factor 1 �Living in harmony with Nature� maximum is 5.00 and minimum is 2.17, the average M = 3.95, SD = 0.74

For Factor 2 �Participation in Nature� maximum is 5.00, minimum is 3.5, the average M = 4.74, SD = 0.43

Dispersion Analysis

Table XI - Defining the differences in the grouped items

	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error	95% Confidence Interval for Mean	Minimum	Maximum
					Lower Bound	Upper Bound
factor1	female	17	3,88	0,77	,18566	3,4888	4,2759	2,17	5,00
	male	15	4,02	0,73	,18819	3,6186	4,4258	2,83	5,00
	Total	32	3,9479	,73985	,13079	3,6812	4,2147	2,17	5,00
factor2	female	17	4,84	0,34	,08286	4,6626	5,0139	4,00	5,00
	male	15	4,63	0,50	,12879	4,3571	4,9096	3,50	5,00
	Total	32	4,7422	,42826	,07571	4,5878	4,8966	3,50	5,00

ANOVA
	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
factor1	Between Groups	,156	1	,156	0,278	0,602
	Within Groups	16,813	30	,560
	Total	16,969	31
factor2	Between Groups	,335	1	,335	1,876	0,181
	Within Groups	5,351	30	,178
	Total	5,686	31

In �Living in harmony with Nature� ( Factor 1) (Mmale = 4.02, SDmale = 0.73; Mfemale = 3.88, SDfemale = 0.77) there are no significant differences in the averages between male and female groups F(1, 30) = 0.278, p = 0.602. In �Participation in Nature� (Factor 2) (Mmale = 4.63, SDmale = 0.50; Mfemale = 4.84, SDfemale = 0.34) there are no significant differences in the averages between male and female groups too F(1, 30) = 1.876, p = 0.181.

Correlation Analysis



Table XII - Correlationsa in female group

	factor1	factor2
factor1	Pearson Correlation	1	0,02
	Sig. (2-tailed)		0,932
	N	17	17
factor2	Pearson Correlation	,022	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	,932
	N	17	17
a. gender = female

Table XIII - Correlationsa in male group

	factor1	factor2
factor1	Pearson Correlation	1	0,74**
	Sig. (2-tailed)		0,001
	N	15	15
factor2	Pearson Correlation	,744**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	,001
	N	15	15
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
a. gender = male

From the correlation analysis we gained the significant outcome. Two factors - �Living in harmony with Nature� and �Participation in Nature� - in the male group are highly correlated. In the female group, they are not.

Correlation coefficient (Male) rmale = 0.74, p = 0.001

Correlation coefficient (Female) rfemale = 0.02, p = 0.932

Currently, we cannot give a highly plausible explanation for this outcome, however it certainly adds more value to our search. Another outcome is that �Participation in Nature� (a conditional name) factor is prevailing, the mean rate of it is 4. 7422, the upper bound is 4.8966, the lower bound is 4. 5878.



3. Qualitative inquiries into the topic

3.1 Questions and answers on forums

We searched online forum Baidu Zhidao for the Chinese opinions regarding the topic. Baidu Zhidao is the Chinese hugest online platform which serves for knowledge sharing, namely, asking and responding to questions by users of the platform. We posted own question as well: �What is the Chinese perception of nature like? Do the Chinese feel the connection with nature or do not? Why did they worship nature in the past, but now demonstrate nothing of the kind?� Below are some examples of replies we have faced.

Here is the first answer we received. �Comparing my country with other Asian countries in this respect, I am not going to belittle China anyway, but as to pollution management, it is really the worst, two thirds of Chinese cities are polluted. Moreover, two thirds of them in turn are heavily polluted. All the reports of recent years confirm it. The reason of such a heavy pollution is rooted in China's rapid economic growth. Chinese population density is rated the second biggest in the world, and the country boosted her economic growth in a very short period - just in a few decades, whereas China had suffered in the Second World War and during the decade of the Cultural Revolution. After the War, countries began to rebuild themselves, but China went through the Cultural Revolution (for details you may find relevant data)�People of ancient China showed reverence , had ideals. Although primitive superstitions are inappropriate, yet what is really terrible is the loss of ideals. Now many people, who still worship Buddha, even they are seeking some new spiritual comfort. Money is the ideal for the modern Chinese. This statement is as much true as ridiculous. One day, when there is no space to take a single breath, massive aggression will occur because natural resources will be depleted....� �����l���R����ô�����й����Dz��Ǹо������Ȼ��ϵ��Ϊʲô�й��Ļ���ȥ�𾴴���Ȼ�������ڲ�����ˣ�/ What is the Chinese perception of nature like? Do the Chinese feel the connection with nature or do not? Why did they worship nature in the past, but now demonstrate nothing of the kind? URL:https://zhidao.baidu.com/question/924706137403914739.html?entry=qb_uhome_tag [Accessed on March 19, 2018]

Another answer stressed the importance of the concept of `unity of Heaven and Humanity' ( tianrenheyi) �V�l����, we mentioned it in the Chapter 1 and faced it in the answers of respondents in the mini-survey. �The most representative vision is the idea of `unity of Heaven and Humanity', it expresses reverence for nature and close connection between human and nature� Ibid..

Related questions the Chinese asked their compatriots were as follows.

�What is the difference between the Chinese and the Western perception of human-nature relations?� The answers: �Historically, the Chinese were not environmentally conscious, whereas the Western world became concerned for environment and wildlife much earlier�; �Currently, China concentrates on economic development, leaving aside environmental issues, remember recent smog alerts in Tianjin and Beijing�; �That is not true, in times of Shang and Zhou the Chinese already had environmental thought - written accounts confirmed that. As to Chinese concentration on economic development, any country development is just like this at the first stages, China has already started environmental policies� ��ͳ�й��˶���Ȼ��̬�Ⱥ������˶���Ȼ��̬���кβ�ͬ��/ What is the difference between the Chinese and the Western perception of human-nature relations URL:https://zhidao.baidu.com/question/1383126566609398300.html?fr=iks&word=%D6%D0%B9%FA%C8%CB%B6%D4%B4%F3%D7%D4%C8%BB%D3%D0%CA%B2%C3%B4%CC%AC%B6%C8&ie=gbk [ Accessed on May 10, 2018].

�The traditional Chinese concept of nature emphasizes the harmony between man and nature, and there is a whole tradition of man and nature framed in ideology in a way. Dong Zhongshu also proposed an idea of "correspondence between heaven and humans" [represented in human body metrics and the Universe]. This shows that since Confucianism, people are not only in an equal relationship with nature, but human beings are another way of presenting nature. Taoism's attitude towards nature and Confucianism are all the same. Both advocate for nature and obeying nature law� �����l�I���R�ۺ��ձ��˵���Ȼ����ʲô��ͬ? / What is the difference between the Chinese and the Japanese perception of nature?URL: https://zhidao.baidu.com/question/394495232.html [Accessed on May 1, 2018].

Basically, the researcher observed ambivalent trends of reply. First, while asking questions to other users, the Chinese tend to raise issues of their country's `ignorance' and lack of concern and connection to nature often associated with infamous cases of pollution, etc. These statements are critical to anthropocentrism, showing it as a major, systematic national vision. By contrast, while giving replies, their compatriots more often state the opposite, emphasizing notions of participation in nature, the strong interconnectedness.

3.2 Weibo publications: content analysis

Sina Weibo is the most popular social media in China, a platform for micro-blogging with short messages serving as a national analogue to prohibited Twitter and Facebook. On Weibo it is also possible to upload videos, images, etc., and several studies confirm the tendency to disclose more personal information on Weibo compared to Twitter Gao, Qi, Fabian Abel, Geert-Jan Houben and Yong Yu. 2012. �A Comparative Study of Users' Microblogging Behavior on Sina Weibo and Twitter.� In: Masthoff, J.; Mobasher, B.; Desmarais, M.; Nkambou, R. (Eds.), User Modeling, Adaptation, and Personalization: 20th International Conference, UMAP 2012, Montreal, Canada, July 16-20, 2012 Proceedings, 88-101. Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.. In 2012, the number of registered users surpassed the 500 million markChina's Sina Weibo grew 73% in 2012, passing 500 million registered accounts URL: https://thenextweb.com/asia/2013/02/21/chinas-sina-weibo-grew-73-in-2012-passing-500-million-registered-accounts/ [Accessed on May 1, 2018], in 2015 there are 313 million monthly active users estimatedAn Introduction to Sina Weibo: Background and Status Quo URL: https://www.whatsonweibo.com/sinaweibo/ [Accessed on May 1, 2018]. In the research project `Why We Post: the Anthropology of Social Media' conducted by nine anthropologists from University College London Chinese practices, experiences, contents of social media and their impact in 5 major areas were studied inter alia. We appeal to content analysis of Weibo publications as it will enable reaching for broader audience while not being limited by question scales. Weibo content may represent people's views on nature, and we will categorize them according to the topics underlying.

3.3 Methodology

The survey was conducted without any technological tool of analysis; totally, 260 singular publications were collected and examined, they were posted during four single days in April, 2018. All the posts were written in Chinese, the search word or the key notion was `nature' �厩�R. Out of total amount approximately 180 publications fit in thematically and were categorized into several groups. The groups mostly correspond with those ones from the Human and Nature scale : mastery over nature, stewardship of nature, partnership with nature and participation in nature (see . The other categories were entitled like admiration for nature, escapism, treating nature as a part of life-style or self-development, education and policies, and the rest. Mentions of nature during trips and vocations were beyond the scope or categorized as the rest.

On what basis categorization was undertaken? `Mastery over nature' speaks for itself and represent anthropocentric and pragmatic vision of Human - Nature relations. As for environmental problems, according to this vision, it is technological progress that enables humanity to solve them. Stewardship of nature stresses human's higher position towards the rest, but a moral obligation to take responsibilities. Partnership with nature advocates for human's equal value with the rest of nature, beneficial mutual exchange, and coexistence. Participation in nature is more emotional, intense connection, feeling of oneness and belonging to something greater.

Participants

The audience is expected to be the youth predominantly, given the fact that they are 70 percent of Weibo users overall. However, we cannot determine this portrait of a typical `respondent' in this case, apparently, a sophisticated technology is needed for this purpose.

3.4 Limitations

We used only a search word `nature' in Chinese to find matchings among all publications. Also, some of the publications had hashtags, and then we tried to apply them while searching too, but their content was quite of the same type, only quantitative approach would matter.

Another point is that the way how to classify some of the publications may be different and depends on viewpoint. For example, we derived several messages which represent sense of guilty about human's behavior to natural environment in general. Or exclamations of escaping from concrete jungle and material world to nature. Anyway, these opinions gravitate towards ecocentric realm. The researcher tends to classify `the guilty group' as a part of stewardship of nature. The frequently recited phrase �The more a human is surrounded with materialistic things, the more one is amazed when facing nature� ��꘢�l�ݕ����������ݵ�Խ��C�œ��厩�Rʱ�ͻ�Խ����׳�۔ can be qualified both as escapism and participation in nature: the Internet users understand it in the way like human is too small compared to the great world, or if one has a connection to nature, then nature constantly admires and moves deeply. It is interesting that this phrase repeats 8 times in the scope and stems from a Chinese reality show `Back to field' (an authentic translation may sound like `Promising Life') �s�����I�����t, the main idea of which is to return to rural life, self-dependence, beauty of neighborhood and environment �s�����I�����t�������Q?�ܻ���԰ӭ��URL : http://ent.sina.com.cn/z/v/2017-01-15/doc-ifxzqnim4445585.shtml [Accessed on May 2, 2018].

3.5 Results

Table XIV - Grouped content of Weibo publications

Category	Number of items
Mastery over nature	0
Stewardship of nature	11
Partnership with nature	8
Participation in nature	24
Escapism to nature	14
Admiration for nature	41
Life-style	8
Education and policies	11
the rest	17

Total scope - more than 150 items, certain ones were reconsidered and then excluded. The category �the rest� contains texts and pictures posted during trips or showing particular tourist destinations.

Dominating topics were �Admiration for nature� and �Participation in Nature�. Most important, the latter corresponds with the prevailing factor of the same name in our quantitative research (Chapter 2).

It is worth mentioning that images of plant world and landscapes prevail over those ones with animals and pets (only three in the scope), and that corresponds with the results of the questionnaire (65. 6% of the respondents have houseplants).



Conclusion

Before starting the research, we could not predict anything, we did not have any certain expectation of its results. In regard to the Chinese case, the scales we used and the theoretical framework we employed for the social media content analysis were introduced for the first time.

In the theoretical part, we set out a range of anthropocentric and ecocentric paradigms of perceiving and, thereafter, treating nature. Those paradigms vary from instrumental, plainly consumerist, aimed at mastery over nature ones to those which value non-sentient nature, argue that humanity has duties to the environment, believe in interconnectedness or simply find joy and beauty in nature.

Besides, we compared two visions of the Asian scholars, who work in this field, on Confucian heritage, its influence on the Chinese perception of nature, but mostly its expected contribution to the world environmental thought, environmental ethics. From both of the perspectives - rather practical role-based anthropocentric one and a deep transcendent ecocentric vision of unity with nature - Confucian or New Confucian ethics is shown to be applicable for new solutions in human -nature transactions.

In the practical part, the empirical data we collected was considered in the frameworks of theoretical paradigms explained earlier. Both the mini-survey and the social media content analysis showed that the Chinese participants predominantly demonstrate ecocentric visions with an inclination to admire nature and seek spiritual comfort, peace of mind by participating in nature. The factor �Participation in Nature� prevailed over the rest of the categories in both of the surveys. We verified the results of the mini-survey (online questionnaire) by means of psychometrics ( statistics in psychology), and it brought us to a curious outcome: in the scope examined, in male group there was a strong correlation in answers in two thematical blocks of questions, whereas in female group there is not. Also, in both of the surveys, plants and houseplants were the most popular items.

Thus, we gained an understanding that the perception of nature of the Chinese, or groups of the Chinese youth who participated in the surveys, may be ecocentric and oriented on interconnectedness as much as it is so in Confucian ethics.

We hope that the data collected and the whole this new inquiry into the issue from the perspective of environmental psychology and ethics may be useful for other young scholars in Oriental studies.



Literature and sources

1. Anderson, Mark. 2012. �New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) Scale.� Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability 6: 260-62.

2. Baker, E, and Richardson, M. 1999. �Ethics and the Environment.� In Ethics Applied, New York: Simon & Schuster, 407-37.

3. Clayton, Susan D., ed. 2012. �The Oxford Handbook of Envuronmental and Conservational Psychology." Oxford University Press.

4. De Groot, M., Drenthen, M., De Groot, W. 2011. "Public visions of the human/nature relationship and their implications for environmental ethics". In Environmental Ethics 33 (1): 25-44

5. Dunlap, R.,Van Liere, K., Mertig, A., & Jones, R. 2000. "Measuring endorsement of the new ecological paradigm: A revised NEP scale." Journal of Social Issues, 56(3) : 425-442

6. Howitt, D., and Cramer, D.2017. "Understanding Statistics in Psychology with SPSS." Pearson.

7. Nuyen, Anh Tuan. 2011. �Confucian Role-Based Ethics and Strong Environmental Ethics.� Environmental Values 20(4): 549-66.

8. Radkau, Joachim. 2008. "Nature and Power: A Global History of the Environment." Cambridge University Press:86-142.

9. Tu Weiming. 2001. �The Ecological Turn in New Confucian Humanism?: Implications for China and the World.� In Daedalus, eds. Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Grim, 243-64.



Appendix

`The Chinese perception of Nature' questionnaire

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