Indo-Anglian: connotations and denotations

Gokak concludes:

... Indo-Anglian writing ... is either predominantly `Anglian' or `Indian'. Very rarely is a synthesis of the two perceptible in sustained works of art. This does not mean that Indo-Anglian writers who are predominantly `Indian' are all victims and not masters of style. But it is the mastery of a style which is peculiarly Indo- Anglian.” (163) In this situation, according to Gokak, “a good deal of Indo Anglian fiction or poetry falls short of the level that our greatest writers have touched in their own languages. (Gokak n.d.:164)

Gokak makes a case for the use of two terms viz. “Indo-Anglian literature” and “Indo-English literature” for the works of the Indians in English. He uses the term `Indo-Anglian literature' for the writings of such Indians who write literary forms ranging from epic to personal essay in English. He opines that the history of Indo- Anglian literature is “illustrious”. For the growing volume of translations by Indians from Indian literature into English Gokak uses the term `Indo-English literature'. He describes R C Dutt's Ramayana and Tagore's Gitanjali as Indo -English works. As English is the literary lingua franca in India it necessitates “to present in English, work of recognised merit done in one of the Indian languages.” (Gokak n.d.:161) He also considers this sort of work to be very important “in order to promote a knowledge of Indian thought and vision abroad.” (Gokak n.d.:162) Such translations were earlier considered to a part of Anglo-Indian and/or Indo-Anglian literatures. He gives the following reasons to justify his coinage and use of the term “Indo- English literature”: i) The literary translation is not the “product of electronic brains [but]. is a spontaneous expression of the human personality. It demands as much creative sensitiveness as critical insight.” (Gokak n.d.:165) ii) “One can only translate effectively a work which [one has] loved and admired. The delight experienced in translating such a work is as genuine as the delight arising from creative work.” (Gokak n.d.:165) iii) Translation is a selfless creative activity in which the translator's genius is mingled. iv) “Again, this body of translations should not be the sporadic work of isolated individuals. It should rather be a movement, a concerted and organised effort to represent the variety and grandeur of Indian literature in English. This body of writing will not be less natural than Indo -Anglian. On the other hand, it will consist of works of approved excellence and become truly representative.” (Gokak n.d.:166) v) “Indo -English literature will be none other than

Indian literature in translation. But the phrase Indo-English is a convenient phrase to distinguish it from Indo-Anglian literature.” (Gokak n.d.:166)

Gokak makes a distinction between Indo-Anglian and Indo-English writings as the approaches and purposes of these writers are entirely different:

The Indo-Anglian tends to write with an eye on an outlandish reading public and picks up themes and situations that might appeal to the West. The Indo -English writer, on the other hand, is concerned with a book that is redolent of the soil. It deals with problems that are our problems and in the manner in which we expert own writers to present and to interpret them to us. There is a fundamental difference in the approach. I am tempted to say, in fact, that Indo-Anglian literature is a hothouse plant rather than one that has sprung from the soil and sprouted and burgeoned in the open air. (n.d.:164)

However, many critics have used Indo-Anglian and Indo-English as synonyms as is clear from the titles of various works [see infra].

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. The Affirmation

The coinage of the term “Indo-Anglian” can safely be attributed to James Payn whose “An Indo-Anglian Poet”2 (March 1880) is the first available piece having the appellation in it. Payn perhaps coined the term to make fun of the Indians writing in English and used it pejoratively in his review article of the collection of poems, Courting the Muse3 (published by “Gopal, Navazen, and Co., Kalbedevi Road”). The tone of the review is satirical and the purpose is to show a mirror to the vain claims being made about the growing understanding between the Indians, the colonised and the Britons, the coloniser: “There is so much rubbish talked about the growing sympathy of native races with ourselves, and of`the giant strides' which their intelligence is taking, that an exhibition of the latest specimen may be wholesome.” (Payn 1880:371) In his review Payn does not reveal the name of the Indian poet for “obvious reasons” (Payn 1880:371) but says that the poet's name is “utterly unpronounceable” (Payn 1880:371). Despite the tall claims of rarity from “[s]uch a gift of genius from India” (Payn 1880:371) Payn finds the poet's faults as “not ... of immaturity, but of ... ignorance and misconception of English life and thought which lie at the root of all that has been written of us by his fellow- countrymen.” (Payn 1880:371) He finds nothing good in the Indian poems and describes them as “dreadful” (Payn 1880:371), “[devoid of] the sense and the grammar” (Payn 1880:371), “obscure [in] the sense and meaning” (Payn 1880:372) and written in “unapproachable style” (Payn 1880:373). He questions even the source of the poet's knowledge: “[The poet's] knowledge of London, ... , has been derived from some practical joker. .” (Payn 1880:373) He castigates Indians' poetry on several grounds viz. for [taking] leave of sense and even sound in his “intense indignation” (Payn 1880:373), for being poor in observation and imitation, completely unintelligible because of “some muddle in his mind” (Payn 1880:373), weak in sarcasm, for being far from real, writing unrealistic descriptions, for becoming funny when humour is intended and using bad rhymes and poor language.

He also debunks the poet for his sun worship and using names of non-Christian gods. He also derides the poet for he is convinced, as are other Indo-Anglian writers, that he knows all about us.” (Payn 1880:375) In the same vein satirical vein he writes, “There are many new things, however, in English literature t o be learned from the Indo-Anglians.” (Payn 1880:375)

4.2. Popularity of the Term

Sujit Mukherjee in his essay “Indo-English Literature: An Essay in Definition” writes: “`Indo-Anglian' is more or less accepted without further dispute as descriptive of original literary creation in the English language by Indians” (Mukherjee 1968:202) but, Alphonso-Karkala does not approve of the term `Indo - Anglian' as to him it suggests “relation between two countries (India and England) rather than a country and a language.” (Alphonso-Karkala 1970:2) As the term is considered to be indicating to the racial bias, as in `Anglo -Indian', Iyengar switched over to “Indian Writing in English” and Sahitya Akademi to “Indian English Literature” which are politically more correct terms. However, in the post Rushdie literary world the Indian writer has come a long way since the frank admittance of Raja Rao: “We cannot write like the English. We should not.” (Rao 2005:v); more authors claim to be writing in English and not Indian English and hence the term “Indian English Literature” has gone out of favour. Rajan considers the naming of this literature “relatively inconsequential” issue in comparison to “[i]ssues like postcoloniality, multiculturality, indigenization, nativism, the social and political agenda of criticism and the like.” (Rajan 2006:12) He with finality pronounced: “I personally prefer “Indian English” for it seems to adequately convey the sense with minimum confusion.” (Rajan 2006:12) Sometimes, the world may not opt to go w ith an individual opinion.

In this bewildering background it is quite baffling and fascinating to see that the term “Indo-Anglian” caught the imagination of the authors and critics and is still being widely used. The popularity of the term amongst the academicians, researchers, historians and the editors of the anthologies both in India and abroad is clear from the titles of the books, articles and dissertations/ theses. The term “Indo - Anglian” was appropriated and popularised by Indian universities as well by prescribing a course with the name in their MA English programmes in the post independence era (sixties, seventies and eighties) though most of the elite universities have switched over to different names in the recent past. A close scrutiny of the titles4 suggests that the term “Indo-Anglian” is currently being used either by publishers/ authors located in the mofussil towns of India or by the writers/publishers abroad. Others have switched over to Indian English Writing or to Indian Writing in English. However, there are some persons who consider `Indo - Anglian' to be a binary of `Anglo -Indian' as is clear from the name of a school” B L Indo Anglian Public School, Aurangabad (en.wikipedia.org). As against so many Anglo-Indian schools in India there is at least one school that has “Indo-Anglian” in its name. If this naming is considered in the light of thesis/anti-thesis as propagated by Hegel the names `Anglo -Indian' and `Indo-Anglian' are the binary opposites and will continue to exist for ever and I do not foresee a synthesis of these two attitudes (in the sense of Cousins) in near future.

The dwindling number of Anglo-Indians owing to several socio-economic- political factors and even scantier number of authors in them contributed to the term 's acceptance in the later period (Ruskin Bond and I Allan Sealy are perhaps the only examples in today's context). Naturally, such authors too have been included in the gamut ofIndo-Anglian writers though they continue to be socially categorised as Anglo-Indians. There was a time when Indian authors were considered to a part of Anglo-Indian literature. With the passage of time the tables have been turned and now Anglo-Indian authors from diverse parental lineages/ backgrounds (like Aubrey Menen, Ananda Coomarswami, Verrier Elwin, Jim Corbett, Allan Sealy and others) are considered to be a part of Indo-Anglian writing. The ever enlarging number of the Indians and the volume of their contributions was another reason that led to the legitimacy of the term “Indo-Anglian” just as the growth in the number of the users of a particular dialect legitimises its use and becomes a significant step in the direction of standardising the language.

Another reason for its popularity lies in the fact that it asserts national identity by strategically bringing India to the fore of “Anglo”. The coinage of the term, “Indo-Anglian”, was also a historical necessity because of the growing number of the Indians writing in English and the ever enlarging volume of their writings in English but its popularity may be attributed to the assertion of national identity and an intense feeling of nationalism that became obvious with the demand of freedom from the British yoke and the emergence of Gandhi on the national scene. The Indian authors' and literary historians' claim to be a part of `English literature' is a typical example of the colonial syndrome and the reflection of their servile mentality though the vast use and continuing use of the term both in India and abroad may be attributed to the acceptance of India as an independent nation and its unique cultural identity being manifested in its literature. The positive attitude of Indians' writing in English and acceptance of this variety of literature may also be a result of what may be described as Gandhian axiomatic principle in which he wanted freedom from the British and to be their friend and well-wisher simultaneously. This attitude presents a sharp contrast to that of Webster who declared his language to be “American language” after the colonies in America severed their ties with England. Consequently, unlike the situation in India, literatures like American literature, Australian literature, New Zealand literature and Canadian (Anglophone) literature emerged.

5. Conclusions

5.1. The Aftermath

Logically speaking, any term having India in it but coined in the pre-independence era, refers to the common inhabitants, lineage and inheritance of the subcontinent comprising mainly of present-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan. This is another problematic. Interestingly enough K. R. Srinivasa Iyengar's Indo-Anglian Literature (1943) contains a map of undivided

India iacludiag Sri Laaka, Pakistan aad Bangladesh. However the anthologies aad the histories belie this logic as the authors figuring in them continue ts be by and large Indians from the land mass in today's political map of India. The only exception interestingly enough is Rushdie who has included Pakistani, Indian and Bangladeshi authors in his anthology restricted to just fifty years (1947-1997) of the post-independence period, in the title of which he does not use Indo-Anglian. Sometimes the historical burden is too heavy to be overthrown. At the moment the confusion prevails and the riddle has to be left as such for the future generations to be solved.

Notes

1. As the word `Indo-Anglian' does not find an entry in the commonplace dictionaries it is

considered to be unacceptable by some Englishmen; it was, therefore, changed to “Indo Anglican” by an unnamed English printer while producing Iyengar's Literature and Authorship(Foreword by E.M. Forster, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1943). It was wartime and the book had been printed without the proofs being checked by the author. When the Illustrated Weekly of India(14 Nov 1943) made fun of it, Iyengar wrote to them that he had written only `Indo-Anglian' and that “`Indo-Anglican' is a mistake.” (“K.R. Srinivasa Iyengar in Conversation with Makarand Paranjape”, K.R. Srinivasa Iyengar and Makarand Paranjape, Indian Literature, XVI(1): 166-177. https://www.jstor.org/

stable/23341325; Iyengar 2013 I"19621:3-4) Despite this several scholars have taken the term, `Indo-Anglican', seriously and have used it in their discussions and the titles. To substantiate my claim only some titles are being mentioned here owing to the constraints of space: “What Is Indo-Anglican Poetry” [XI (1), March 17th. 1948, http://nzetc.victoria. ac.nz/f Murli Das Melwani's Critical Essays on Indo-Anglican Themes(1971), V. Krishna Rao's The Indo-Anglican Novel and the Changing Tradition: A Study of the Novels of Mulk Raj Anand, Kamala Markandaya, R. K. Narayan and Raja Rao, 1930-1964 (1972), Margaret Lindley Koch's “Tradition and Chance in the Indo-Anglican Novels of the Post-Independence Era” (1974, https://digitalcsmmsas.wku.edu), A Williams' Indo Anglican Literature 1880-1970 : A Survey(1977), Homi K. Bhabha's & R. Partha- sarathy's “Indo-Anglican Attitudes” [TLS, 3 (1978): 1361, J P Sharma's Raja Rao : A Visionary Indo-Anglican Fiction [Writer](1980), Rama Jha's Gandhian Thought and Indo-Anglican Novelists(1983), Lintotage Nihal Asoka Fernando's The Treatment of the Theme of Sociocultural Interaction in Indo-Anglican Fiction, 1935-1976: The Novels of Mulk Raj Anand, Raja Rao and R.K. Narayan(PhD thesis, Flinders University of S. Aust., 1986), R.P.N. Sinha's Indo-Anglican Poetry: Its Birth and Growth(1987), Vikram Chandra's “Indo-Anglican Writers: Where the Mind Is without Fear” (The Hindu, December 19, 1999), Nandini Sahu's “Kaleidoscope of the Indian Society - The Voice of Indo-Anglican Women Poets” (kaviaaadiai.blsgspst.csm/2008), Gopal Mallik Thakur's A Handbook of Indo-Anglican Poems(2010), Ardhendu De's “Indo-Anglican Fiction of the Post-Independence Era” (ardhendude.blogspot.com/2013), Somnath Sarkar's “Essay on Indo-Anglican Poetry & Poets” (eng-literature.com/2016) and Kumuda Ranjan Panda's blog entitled “Indoanglican Literature”. There are at least two Indian universities that are offering courses under the title: “Indo-Anglican Writing: Literary History” (B.A. Part III Examination, Year-2017, Maharaja Ganga Singh University, Bikaner) and “Indo-Anglican Fiction” (Paper Code: BAGEO401CC, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan, CBCS Syllabus 2011, hngu.ac.in).

2. It was reprinted in Littell's Living Age(1844-1896), Apr 3, 1880, Vol. 145(1868), pp.49-52 (https ://archive.srg/stream/liviagage18prsj gssg/liviagage18prsj gssg_djvu.txt).

3. Some excerpts of the book are available in Sheshalatha Reddy's Mapping the Nation : An Anthology of Indian Poetry in English, 1870-1920(London: Anthem Press, 2013, pp. 104 130, Print).

4. Keeping in view the limitation of space only one entry for one year (excluding the books/articles/ theses mentioned in the main text of the article) has been recorded in this list which goes like this: “Indo-Anglian Literature” (Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art, Jan 21, 1888), S. Ray's “Anglo-Indian Poetry” (Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1929), A R Chida's An Anthology of Indo Anglian Verse(1930), “Indo-Anglian Verse” (The Times of India,Bombay, India, 9 July 1930, p. 13), Marie O'Loughlin's “The Birth and Growth of Indo-Anglian Literature and its Contributions to English Literature” (Unpublished Ph D thesisUniversity of the Pacific, 1935), Byram Khusroo Talookdar's “A Survey of Indo-Anglian Poetry, from the Beginning to the Present Time” (Unpublis hed Ph D thesis Trinity College Dublin. 1935), John Gawsworth's “The Future of Indo-Anglian Poetry” (1945), S V Kini's “Indian Writers of English Language: A Brief Survey of Indo-Anglian Literature” (1951), Susan Havard Perkins' Reflections of Modern Culture in Indo-Anglian Literature; Illustrations from Novels by R.K. Narayan andMulk Raj Anand(1957), P Lal & K. Raghavendra Rao's Modern Indo-Anglian Poetry: An Anthology(1959), Prema Nandakumar's “Achievement of the Indo-Anglian Novelist” (1961), A V Krishna Rao's “The Gandhi Legend in Indo- Anglian Fiction” (1963), Audrey Lynch Dibble's “The Indian National Movement in Indo - Anglian Fiction” (1964), Gabrielle Tyrnauer's “Indo-Anglian Fiction and the Indian Elite” (1965), Alice G Tyrner's “Indo-Anglian Literature And The Indian Elite” (1966), Meenakshi Mukherjee's “Awareness of Audience in Indo-Anglian Fiction” (1967), P P Mehta's Indo-Anglian Fiction: An Assessment(1968), Alice Gabrielle Tyrner-Stastny's “Indo-Anglian Literature and the Colonial Indian Elit e” (1969), Vinayak Krishna Gokak's The Golden Treasury of Indo-Anglian Poetry; 1828-1965(1970), Subhas Chandra Saha's Modern Indo-Anglian Love Poetry(1971), Kai Nicholson's A Presentation of Social Problems in the Indo-Anglian and the Anglo-Indian Novel(1972), Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's “Indo-Anglian Curiosities” (1973), Joan F. Adkins' “Kamala Markandaya: Indo - Anglian Conflict As Unity” (1974), R K Badal's Indo-Anglian Literature: An Outline (1975), Murli Das Melwani's Themes in Indo-Anglian Literature(1976), D Chatterjee's “The Image of Gandhi in the Indo-Anglian Novel” (1977), Homi Bhabha's “Indo-Anglian Attitudes” (1978), Meena Shirwadkar's Image of Woman in the Indo-Anglian Novel (1979), K. C. Bhatnagar's Realism in Major Indo-English Fiction: With Special Reference to M.R Anand, R.K. Narayan, Raja Rao(1980), J P Sharma's “Raja Rao: A Visionary Indo-Anglian Fiction [Writer]” (1980), A N Dwivedi's Four Indo-Anglian Poets: Study of Toru Dutt, Rabindra Nath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo and Sarojini Naidu(1981), Sudarshan Sharma's The Influence of Gandhian Ideology on Indo-Anglian Fiction(1982), Rama Jha's Gandhian Thought and Indo-Anglian Novelists(1983), Mulk Raj Anand's Gandhian Thought and Indo-Anglian Novelists(1984), Serena Mahajan's Stream of Consciousness: Indo-Anglian Novel(1985), Gomathi Narayanan's The Sahibs and the Natives: A Study of Guilt and Pride in Anglo-Indian and Indo-Anglian Novels(1986), S. Krishna Bhatta's “Indo-Anglian Drama: Why Meager Achievement?” (1987), S C Sanyal's English Language in India and Indo-Anglian Prose Style(1988), Asha Kaushik's Politics, Aesthetics and Culture: A Study of Indo-Anglian Political Novel(1989), P K Dutta's “Studies in Heterogeneity: A Reading of Two Recent Indo-Anglian Novels” (1990), Ashley E. M yles' Anthology of Indo Anglian Poetry(1991), G S Amur's Forbidden Fruit, Views on Indo-Anglian Fiction(1992), K C Baral & C K Naik's “Woman and Society : The Changing Status of Woman in Indo-Anglian Fiction” (1993), Anil Kumar Prasad's The Village in Indo-Anglian Fiction(1994), M Subba Rao's Indo-Anglian Literature: Prospective and Retrospective(1995), Shashi Tharoor's “Indo-Anglian Writing Today” (1996), Tunku Varadarajan's “Rushdie Claims `Indo-Anglian' As Native Tongue” (1997), Naresh K. Jain's Women in Indo-Anglian Fiction: Tradition and Modernity(1998), Gajendra Kumar's Indo-Anglian Novel Criticism: Tradition and Achievement(1999), Gayatri Singh's Women in Indo-Anglian Fiction(2000), Sarojani Nautiyal's An Introduction to Three Indo-Anglian Novels(2001), Chelva Kanaganayakam's Counterrealism and Indo-Anglian Fiction(2002), S K Mehta's Problem of Alienation in Post-Independence Indo-Anglian Fiction(2003), Edna Kalefs “Challenging the Orientalist Fron: Benefits of the Cultural Encounter in Indo-Anglian Literature” (2004), Arunima Singh's Persecuted Women in Indo Anglian Novels(2005), Anis Shivani's “Indo- Anglian Fiction: The New Orientalism” (2006), Meena Iyer's “A Sleek, Black-Tie Wedding in Indo-Anglian Style” (2007), Kunal Basu's “Don't Call Me an Indo-Anglian Author” (2008), K. V. Dominic's Postcolonial Readings in Indo-Anglian Literature (2009), “Indo-Anglian Writing has Come of Age: Daman Singh” (2010), Pratima Prasad's Women in Nigerian and Indo-Anglian Fiction: A Comparative Study of Female Novelists (2011), Sahasranshu's “The Use of Myth in Indo-Anglian Fiction” (2012), Peter Groves' “Subversive Rhythms: Postcolonial Prosody and Indo-Anglian Poetry” (2013), Ketaki Dutta's Indo-Anglian Literature: Past to Present(2014), Vipin Behan Goyal's blog “Indo- Anglian Poetry in Desi English” (2015), Mini S. Menon's “Catching up on Malayalam and Indo-Anglian Literature” (2016), Bindu Bedi's Defense Mechanisms in Indo-Anglian Fiction(2017), Margaret Berry's “Two Faces of Indo-Anglian Fiction: Mulk Raj Anand and R. K. Narayan” (2017), P D Tripathi's “The Indo-Anglian Novel: A Historical Perspective” (2017), Inder Nath Kher “Gandhi and the Ideas of Human Development in Indo-Anglian Fiction” (2017) and “Indo Anglian, Kannada And Kashmiri Literature” (2018)

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