The Development of English Literature

Writers of earlier times shared with their readers a common value system and sense of what was significant in human life. This helped to determine their choice of subjects and themes as well as their methods of expression. In contrast, the modern age has witnessed the disintegration of a public background of belief, and it is their own personal visions of life and reality that modern writers express.

This personalized view of reality has resulted in significant changes in the subject matter and style of modern poetry and fiction. It has led to the creation of works concerned foremost with the exploration of the moods, thoughts, and feelings of individuals - their inner life. One important con-sequence of it has been a departure from formally plotted narratives to stories that are virtually plotless. For example, stories such as Joyce's “Araby” and “Eveline” and Woolf's “The New Dress” contain little action, but build up epiphanies, or moments of intense personal revelation.

4. English Literature Today.

During the 1970s and early 1980s, such writers as Greene, Lessing and Le Carre continued to produce important novels. New writers also appeared.

Writers of earlier times shared with their readers a common value system and sense of what was significant in human life. This helped them to determine their choice of subjects, themes and methods of expression. In contrast, the modern age has witnessed the disintegration of public background of belief, and it is their own personal visions of life and reality that modern writers express. This personalized view of reality has resulted in significant changes in the subject matter and style of modern poetry and fiction. It has led to the creation of works concerned foremost with the exploration of the moods, thoughts, and feelings of individuals - their inner life.

Modern writers are creating their works in different genres and various themes. John Fowler combined adventure and mystery in such novels as “The French Lieutenant's Woman” (1969), Margaret Drabble described the complex lives of educated middle-class people in London in “The Garrick Years”(1964), “The Middle Ground”(1980) and other novels. Iris Murdoch's novels are psychological studies of upper middle-class intellectuals.

The three leading English poets today are Ted Hughes, Philip Larkin, and Donald Davie. Ted Hughs produced a major work in his cycle of “Crow” poems (1970-1971). Philip Larkin's verse has been published in his collection “High Windows” (1974). Many of Davie's poems were collected in “In the Stopping Train” (1977).

Drama is also flourishing in today's English literature. At the end of the XX century Harold Pinter continued to write disturbing plays. His plays “No Man's Land”(1975), and “Betrayal” (1978) are highly individual. English playwright Tom Stoppard won praise for the verbal brilliance, intricate plots, and philosophical themes of his plays. His “Jumpers”(1972) and “Travesties” (1974) are among the most original works in Modern English drama. David Hare in his “Plenty”( 1978) wrote about the decline in postwar English society. The dramatist Simon Gray created vivid portraits of troubled intellectuals in “Butley” (1971) and “Otherwise Engaged” (1975). Peter Shaffer wrote a complex drama about composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, entitled “Amadeus” (1979). Caryl Churchill wrote mixing past and present in her comedy “Cloud Nine” (1981) and created an imaginative feminist play “Top Girls” (1982).

Thus, English poets, writers and dramatists are continuing to create their masterpieces and are still enriching the world literature with their original works, so the process is going on.

Graham Greene (1904 - 1991)

A great-nephew of Robert Louis Stevenson, Greene was the son of the headmaster of a school in Hertfordshire. Graham attended his fathers school, studied at the Oxford University. In the year of graduation (1925) he published a book of poetry “Babbling April”. During the next two years he married, became a journalist (eventually joined the staff of the London “Times” and converted to Roman Catholicism. After the publication of his first novel “The Man Within”(1929) he left “the Times” and became a free-lance writer and reviewer. He had a versatile talent being equally good as a novelist, essayist, short-stories writer and a playwright.

Greene is both a prolific writer and an experienced traveler, and over the years his novels have been set in a number of exotic places: “Stambool Train” (1932) on the Orient Express; “The Power and the Glory” (1940) in Mexico; “The Heart of the Matter (19480 in Nigeria; “The Quiet American” (1956) in Vietnam; “A Burnt-Out Case (1961) in Central Africa; “The Comedians (1966) in Haity; “The Honorary Consul” (1973) in Argentina.

Two important influences on Greene's writing have been his Catholicism and the cinema. As a Catholic, Greene reflects on his religious convictions and probes the nature of good and evil in both the personal and doctrinal level. Greene has done excellent work both as a film critic and as a screenwriter.

Greene is known as the author of two genres: psychological detective novels or “entertainments”, and “serious novels”, as he called them. Both novels and entertainments are marked by careful plotting and charac-terization, but in the “serious novels” the inner world of the characters is more complex and the psychological analysis becomes deeper. The “entertainments” are, for the most part, literary thrillers, such as “A Gun for Sale” (1936), “The Ministry of Fear (1943), and “The Third Man” (1949). The novels belonging to the “serious” category are: “The Man Within” (1929), “It's a Battlefield (1934), ”England Made Me” (1935), “Brighton Rock” (1938), “The Power and the Glory”(1940), “The Heart of the Matter”(1948), “The End of the Affair”(1951), “The Quiet American” (1955), “A Burnt-Out Case” (1961), “The Comedians” (1966).

“The Quiet American” is one of Graham Greene's best works. It marks a new stage in the development of his talent. In “The Quiet American”, the author tells the truth about the war in Vietnam. The book deals with the war waged by the French colonizers against the Vietnamese people, who were fighting for their independence. It also presents the real nature of American diplomacy of that period. The novel conveys the idea that every nation has the right to decide its own future. Besides this, the author tries to convince the reader that no man, no journalist or writer in particular, can remain neutral; sooner or later he has to take sides.

Among his latest works, there are several novels: “Doctor Fisher of Geneva or the Bomb Party” (1980), “Monsignor Quixote” (1982), “Getting to Know the General” (1984), “The Tenth Man” (1985), “The Captain and the Enemy” (1988). Besides, he wrote two volumes of autobiographies: “A Sort of Life” (1971) and “Ways of Escape” (1980).

Charles Percy Snow (1905-1980)

Sir Charles Percy Snow was born in Leicester in 1905. By the end of the twenties he graduated from the University of Cambridge and went on working there in the field of molecular physics. Snow's academic life continued until the beginning of World War II.

Charles Percy Snow began writing in the thirties. “The Search”, the first of his novels, was published in 1934. Six years later, in 1940, appeared his novel “Strangers and Brothers” which then became the title of a whole sequence of novels written in the forties, fifties and sixties. The second novel of the sequence entitled “The Light and the Dark”, was published in 1947. It was succeeded by the novels “Time of Hope” (1949) and “The Masters” (1951). Later on “The New Men” (1954), “Homecomings” (1956), “The Conscience of the Rich” (1959) and “The Affair” (1960) were added to it, but the sequence is not yet completed. “Corridors of Powers”, the latest of all the novels already written, appeared in 1964. The author himself divided all the books of the sequence into two main groups. The first group is called “novels of private experience” and includes “Time of Hope” (1947) and “Homecomings” (1956). All the rest belong to the group of “novels of conditioned experience”. The main hero of all the books is Louis Eliot, scientist and statesman, this is why English literary critics call them “the Louis Eliot sequence”. In the so-called “novels of private experience”, Snow describes the life of Louis Eliot in his youth (“Time of Hope”) and in the middle age (“Homecomings”), while in other novels the lives of his friends, relatives and acquaintances is seen through his eyes. In general, Snow makes an impressive study of English society in the twentieth century. True to the method of modern critical realism, the writer places the representatives of different classes and social circles in the centre of his artistic attention.

Being a scientist by profession, he manages to create convincing pictures of the relations between intellectuals and the upper classes. And, though Snow is very far from communist views himself, his description of the social and political struggle contains certain points of criticism of bourgeois society. As a realist, Charles Percy Snow mainly gives a generalizing picture of English society of yesterday and today, of its most characteristic and typical trends and features. This does not prevent him, however, from being a master of individual psychology. In some of his works (especially “Time of Hope” and “Homecomings”) the inner life of the characters is brilliantly disclosed. However traditional in descriptions, Snow is a subtle and sensitive artist of landscape.

Norman Lewis (1908-2003)

Norman Lewis was born in 1908 into the family of a Welsh farm worker. At the beginning of World War II he joined the British Armed Forces and was sent to Sicily. After the war he worked as a journalist, and being deeply interested in ethnography, he traveled all over the world. Soon he became well-known as an author of travel books and articles. By the end of the forties Lewis, already a professional author, wrote about eight novels, some of which were masterful and emotional.

In his youth Lewis was a great admirer of XIX^th century Russian classical literature. Of the modern authors, his writings in both manner and presentation bear the influence of Hemingway. Lewis' first novel was published in 1949. It was followed by “A Single Pilgrim” (1953) and “The Day of the Fox” (1955). Two years later appeared “Volcanoes Above Us” (1957). In the sixties he wrote: “Darkness Visible” (1960), “The Tenth Year of the Ship” (1962), “The Honoured Society” (1964) and “A Small War Made to Order” (1966).

Norman Lewis belonged to the so-called “anti-colonial” trend in English literature. A convinced realist, he always wrote about the countries he knew and had lived in. Another characteristic feature is his journalistic style of narration. He has written much about movements for liberation and independence in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The action of “A Single Pilgrim” takes place in Laos, while in “The Day of the Fox” we see Spain under Franco's dictatorship. “Volcanoes Above Us” is a picture of Guatemala after the tragic events of 1954. In this novel the author exposes the American monopolies actively supporting the attempt to overthrow the legal government. The American, Mr. Eliot, one of its characters, is described satirically. “Volcanoes Above Us” narrates the dramatic story of the fate of the native population - Indian tribes - condemned to death in reservations. “Samara” and “Darkness Visible” deal with the civil war in Algeria. Lewis' novel “The Honoured Society”, which tells of the criminal activity of the Mafia - an illegal reactionary organization in Sicily -, evoked quite a sensation. Built on documentary data, this novel exposes some of the vices of the contemporary society. Among his later publications it's worth mentioning “Every Man's Brother” (1967), “Flight from the Dark Equator” (1972), “The Sicilian Specialist” (1975), “Naples `44'” (1978), “The German Company” (1979); “The Voices of the Old Sea” (1983), “Jackdaw Cake” (1985) and “The Missionaries” (1987) compose a trilogy.

Sid Chaplin (1916-1986)

Sid Chaplin was born in 1916 in the north of England into a miner's family. Having graduated from school when he was sixteen, he began working at the coal mines. Only by the end of the thirties Chaplin managed to renew his studies at the workers' college. Although his books began to appear in the late forties, writing never became his sole profession. Then Sid Chaplin was working in the administration of the coal mines in Newcastle and at the same time was writing novels and articles for newspapers and magazines. Chaplin did not win popularity with his first book. His first publication was a series of short stories entitled “The Leaping Lad” published in 1948. It was followed by three novels: “My Fate Cries Out” (1950), “The Thin Seam” (1951) and “The Big Room” (1960). Widely read and highly appreciated by critics was Chaplin's novel “The Day of the Sardine” which appeared in 1961. The novel “The Watchers and the Watched”, published a year later, was an equal success. The latest of the writer's novels is “Sam in the Morning” (1965). As a writer, Sid Chaplin belonged to the so-called “working class literature” trend in English literature. This trend included, besides Chaplin himself, Alan Sillitoe, Raymond Williams, Stan Barstow, David Storey and others. The essential subject of Chaplin's books is the life of the working class youth. The writer deals mainly with the present and the future of the younger generation of the English people. A teenager is always present in his characters.

Arthur Haggerston, the hero of “The Day of the Sardine”, is faced with the problem: which way of life to choose? The usual, everyday life with its bourgeois standards and attributes threatens to make “a sardine” of him. The image of a “sardine” is for Chaplin the symbol of a human being absolutely submissive to the power of circumstances. Arthur does not want to become a sardine and chooses an ordinary profession of “the white collar” type. On the other hand, Arthur's protest has no clear direction; like thousands of other teenagers, he is angry at society as such. Becoming involved in a youth gang, the hero is always in danger of committing some crime. At the end of the novel Arthur is helped to get rid of the gang's influence by his grown-up friend Harry Parker, but the old problem of choosing a way of life is never solved. Tim Mason, the main character in “The Watchers and the Watched”, finds himself in a similar situation. He is older than Arthur and is married, but his wife, with her conformist views, belongs to the world of “the watchers”, the prison-guards of society, while Tim himself is one of “the watched” imprisoned within it. As Arthur Haggerston, Tim Mason protests against the routine of “sardine-like” existence. A possible solution is prompted by his father, an elderly worker, who reminds Tim of the working class movement in the twenties and thus points out to him the way to live and struggle.

James Aldridge (born in 1918)

James Aldridge was born in Australia in 1918. He got his University education in Australia and in 1938 came to England to continue his career as a journalist. He worked for various London papers and became an editor of the “Daily Sketch”. During the years of the Second World War Aldridge visited many countries as a correspondent, among them Norway, Greece, Egypt, Libya, Iran and Russia. His war experience was helpful in writing his first novels. “Signed with Their Honour” (1942), “The Sea Eagle” (1944), and a book of sketches “Of Many Men” (1946).

“Signed with Their Honour” can be characterized as a military, social and psychological novel. In the novel the author describes the invasion and occupation of Greece by the German and Italian fascist armies. These events took place from October, 1940 to April, 1941. The main character is an English pilot named Quayle, who witnesses the heroic struggle of the Greek people against the invaders, and the treacherous policy of Greek government circles. All the events in the novel are shown through Quayle's eyes, except the last air battle, in which he loses his life.

The personal history of John Quayle becomes closely linked with the Greek people as he falls in love with a Greek girl Helen Stangou. Quayle's contacts with her family and his personal acquaintance with Greek patriots change his views of life. Quayle meets true heroes among the English airmen. They are ready to give their lives in the battle with fascism, and among the Greek soldiers he finds those who do not follow the treacherous policy of their commanders. Aldridge's characters greatly differ from “the lost generation” described in some works of American and English authors, written about World War I. His characters clearly see why they are fighting. The struggle of the Greek people against fascism is the main factor of the novel.

Aldridge's anti-colonial point of view is seen in the novel “The Diplomat” (1949). His later novels are devoted entirely to problems of the Arab people in their struggle for liberation. Among them are ''Heroes of the Empty View” (1954), “I Wish He Would Not Die”, ”The Last Exile”, “Mockery in Arms”. James Aldridge is also the author of a large number of short stories, of which “The Last Inch” is especially popular with the readers. His play “49^th State” is a satirical sketch on the world political situation at the end of the forties. Aldridge's articles in press on the problems of literature are also well-known. Aldridge's activity as a propagandist for peace and friendship among nations deserve the respect of the people of different nationalities.

IRIS MURDOCH ( 1919-1999)

Iris Murdoch was one of the most complex writers in modern English fiction. She was born in 1919 in Dublin. The main theme of her novels is the fate of men and women in modern society, their belief and disbelief. Her heroes are lonely and suffering people. In all her novels we find love as great and mysterious force. It is the inner world of the character that interests Iris Murdoch. Her books arise out of the varied experiences of life.

Iris Murdoch lectured in philosophy from 1948 to 1963 at the Oxford University in England. It influenced her literary career and she became an author of many books on philosophy and philosophical novels. She began her literary career with a critical work “Sartre, Romantic Rationalist” (1953). Her first novel “Under the Net” appeared in 1954 and since then she published a book almost every year.

Her characters face difficult moral choices in their search for love and freedom and are often involved in complex networks of love affairs. Some of Murdoch's novels expose the dangers of abstract system of behavior that cut out people off from spontaneous, loving relationships. “Under the Net” (1954) and “Fairly Honourable Defeat” (1970) are examples of it. “The Bells” (1958) describes the relationships among the members of a religious commune. In “A Several Head” (1961) Murdoch portrays three couples whose unfaithful sexual conduct illustrates their shallow, self-centered philosophies. Existentialistic characteristic features of loneliness, anxiety and fear prevail in “The Unicorn” (1963) and “The Italian Girl” (1964). The ninth novel, “The Red and the Green” (1965) is apparently a progressive point in Murdoch's evolution to realism, but in her next novel, “The Time of Angels” (1966), the writer's realistic vision is completely suppressed by the old pessimistic approach to the individual and society. The line of evolution of Iris Murdoch's creative method was, thus, tremendously unstable and contradictory. By the time she began writing, she was a convinced defender of the existentialist trend in philosophy. Iris Murdoch was always looking for the mysterious in ordinary life. “The Sandcastle” and “The Bell” demonstrate her ability to make usual and even banal situations exciting. A lot of other novels, except “The Red and the Green”, brim with unaccountable horrors, senseless crimes and love affairs. The characters are hopelessly engulfed in the world of evil, their alienation is complete, and the author's dependence on traditional schemes of existentialism is obvious. The picture of the Irish uprising in 1916 in the “The Red and the Green” is written with a certain sense of realism. Her other novels include an “Accidental Man” (1971), “The Black Prince” (1973)'' , “ The Sea, The Sea” (1978), “The Good Apprentice” (1986), and “The Book and the Brotherhood” (1988) . Iris Murdoch tried to write in the spirit of realistic traditions in English literature. But her books are characterized by Romantic foundation .

Sir Kingsley Amis (1922-1995)

Kingsley Amis is an English novelist and poet. He was born in 1922 in London and educated at the City of London School and St. John's College, Oxford. Between 1943 and 1945 he was in the army and then taught English at the University College.

Amis became famous after he had written his first novel “Lucky Jim” (1954). The protagonist of the novel is Jim Dixon. He is an instructor and an unsuccessful lecturer in history at a small provincial university. He is bored by his subject, but at the same time is afraid of losing his job. This forces him to compromise with many circumstances he disapproves of in reality. Jim is disgusted by the falseness of his colleagues and their works. Thus, he finds that his university education does not give him the entree into the world of power or intellectual endeavour.

The novel's hero was immediately regarded as one of the protest figures of the fiction produced by the “Angry Young Man” generation of writers. But Amis, himself, strongly objected to being connected with the group, which in itself was more a term invented by the critics than a literary movement. The targets of criticism in all of Amis's works are various social problems.

Amis's other novels include “That Uncertain Feeling” (1955), “Take a Girl Like You” (1960), “One Fat Englishman” (1964), “The Green Man” (1970), Jake's Thing” (1979), “The Old Devils” (1986), “Difficulties with Girls” (1989), and “The Folks that Live on the Hill” (1990).

Amis has also published three volumes of poems: “ A Frame of Mind” (1953), A Case of Samples (1956) and “A Look Around Estate (1967). His “Collected Poems: 1944-1979” was published in 1979.

Amis is a literary critic as well. In his “New Maps of Hell” (1960) he gives a critical analysis of science fiction. In 1991 his book of autobiographical essays “Memoirs” was published. Queen Elizabeth knighted Amis in 1990. His son, Martin Amis, is also a noted English novelist.

John Wain (1925-1994)

John Wain was born in Staffordshire and educated at Newcastle High School and the Oxford University. From 1946 to 1949 he was a Fellow of St.

John's College, Oxford, and then a lecturer in English literature at Reading University, Berkshire.

John Wain's first novel “Hurry on Down” was published in 1953 and the literary critics immediately placed his name at the top of the list “Angry Young Men” group. The novel portrays a young man who has just left University. He tries to find his proper place in life but fails. His feeling of being a displaced person runs through the whole novel.

Wain's criticism of contemporary life becomes increasingly serious with the further progress of his literary career. In his novels he describes the difficulty of survival in the modern world if one wants to preserve his real self in intrusive and demanding surroundings. Wain's other novels include “Living in the Present” (1955), “The Contenders” (1958), “A Travelling Woman” (1959), “Strike the Father Dead” (1962), “The Young Visitors” (1965), “The Smaller Sky” (1967), “A Winter in the Hills” (1970), “The Pardoner's Tale” (1978), “Lizzie's Floating Shop” (1981), “Young Shoulders” (1982).

John Wain is also a distinguished poet and literary critic. He has pub-lished several volumes of verse including “Mixed Feelings” (1951), “ A Word Carved on a Sill” (1956), Weep Before God (1961), “Wildtrack (1965) and “Poems 1949-1979”.

Ted Hughes (1930-1998)

Ted Hughes is known chiefly for his portrayal of the violence and fierce beauty of the natural world. He was born in Yorkshire. He took a degree at Cambridge, where he was primarily interested in folklore and anthropology. In 1956 he married an American poet, the late Sylvia Plath. His first book of poetry “The Hawk in the Rain” appeared in 1957.

Much of Ted Hughes poetry deals with the natural world. He frequently writes of the savagery and cunning of animals and of similar qualities in human beings. It is characteristic of Hughes's verse to use plants, objects or animals as symbols of some larger general concept. His creatures are powerful and watchful. Like Aesop, Hughes portrays animals in terms that carry messages about human nature. But his messages are seldom moralistic or reassuring. His works show a variety of influences: folklore, mythology, anthropology, as well as the poetry of Thomas Hardy, D.H Lawrence, and Robert Graves.

Hughes's second book of poetry , “Lupercal”, won England's pres-tigious Hawthornden Prize in 1961. “Wodwo”, a compilation of both poetry and prose, including short stories and a radio play, was published in 1967.

Here, below, is one of the poems included into Ted Hughes's “Wodwo”, which shows the poet's keen observation of nature and natural processes:

Firn

Here is the firn's frond, unfurling a gesture

Like a conductor whose music will now be pause

And the one note of silence

To which the whole earth dances gravely.

The mouse's ear unfurls its trust,

The spider takes up her bequest,

And the retina

Rains the creation with a bridle of water.

And, among them, the fern

Dances gravely, like the plume

Of a warrior returning, under the law hills,

Into his own kingdom.

In 1970 a cycle of poems “Crow” came into being and became a best-seller. In it Hughes attempts to create a fragmentary mythology. In addition to verse, Hughes has written a number of plays and several books for children.

Some critics have attacked Hughes for the grimness of his poetic subject matter and the violence of his language, but his admirers contend, that his language is vibrant and passionate, and that his recognition of violence in man and nature is a valid perception.

In 1984 Hughes was appointed a poet laureate.

Margaret Drabble (born in 1939)

Margaret Drabble is an English novelist. She has become popular for realistic portrayals of middle-class women .

Drabble's early novels, such as “A summer Bird-Cage (1963) and “The Garrick Year' (1964) are considered to be almost autobiographical studies of conflicts, young women experience in their careers, marriages, and family lives. Her best novels contain detailed and perceptive analyses of dilemmas women face in modern world (E.G. “The Needle's Eye”, written in 1972.)

Her novels “The Realms of Gold” (1975) and “The Ice Age” include a larger number of characters representing a broad section of English society.

Drabble's later works are characterized by more emphasis on economic, political and social problems. In her novels “The Middle Ground” (1980) and “The Radiant Way” (1987) she describes how social change influences the human characters. In “Natural Curiosity (1989) and “The Gates of Ivory” (1992) the author continues the social concern and develops characters of the earlier works.

Margaret Drabble has also written historical works and literary criticism. She was the editor of the fifth edition of “The Oxford Companion to English Literature. (1985).

Susan Hill (born in 1942)

Susan Hill was born in Scarborough, Yorkshire, and educated at Scar-borough and Coventry grammar schools and King's College, University of London. At the beginning of her career she wrote literary criticism for the Coventry Evening Telegraph for five years and reviewed fiction for several periodicals. Since 1963 Susan Hill is known as a full-time writer and the author of several novels, volumes of short stories, essays and a number of plays. Her titles include: “The Enclosure” (1961), “Do Me a Favour” (1963), “Gentleman and Ladies” (1968), “A Change for the better” (1969), “The Albatross and Other Stories”(1970), “I Am the King of the Castle” (1971), “Strange Meeting”(1971), “The Bird of Night” (1972), “In the Springtime of the Year” (1974), “The Land of Lost Content”(1976), “The Magic Apple Tree: A Country Year” (1982) and many other works. Her works have received considerable attention and were awarded several times. In 1972 she was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.

Susan Hill is highly appreciated as à contemporary writer of psycho-logical fiction. Her style is powerful in its simplicity and unexpected jux-taposition of images.

PREFACE

This book intends to present the course of English literature in accordance with the programme “The Bachelor of Roman-German Philology”, of the specialty 5220100. In the process of its creation, the compliers widely used the achievements of the English, American, Russian and Uzbek literary critics and scientists. In designing this book, we have tried to establish conditions for a creative collaboration between teacher and student. We want not only to introduce students to English authors and their works, but also to help them begin making the critical judgements that can give literature greater meaning.

The book consists of nine units. Each unit contains an information about the definite period of English literature and the most prominent authors of the time. Besides, it is provided with the translations of the key words, expressions and with a series of quotations and tasks, and tests. They serve for the better understanding of the given material.

The language of the book is not very difficult and it may be used by the students of the academic lyceums learning the English language as their main subject, as well. The parts of the book were used at the lectures and practical lessons in English literature at the Faculty of Foreign Philology and academic lyceum of the Bukhara State University and of the Uzbek State University of World Languages, and its shortcomings were removed.

Nevertheless, the authors of the book ask all the specialist users of the book to be strictly critical and send their remarks to the following address:

Uzbekistan,

Bukhara, 705018,

Muhammad Iqbol street, 11

The Bukhara State University,

The Department of English Lexics and Stylistics.

To the assistant-professor Bakaeva M.K.

or teacher Ochilova M.K.

Your suggestions will help us to create the improved version of the book in future.

Commentary on Essential Literary Terms

Allegory (àëëåãîðèÿ) - description of one thing under the name of another, the veiled presentation of the meaning metaphorically implied.

Allusion - a brief reference to a person, event, or place, real or fictitious, or to a work of art.

Angry Young Men ( æà[ëäîð ¸øëàð) - a trend in English literature which appeared in the 50s of the 20th century as a result of a disillusionment in post-war reality.

Antagonist - A person or force that opposes the protagonist in a story or drama.

Aphorism (àôîðèçì, [èêìàòëè ñeç) - A short statement expressing a wise or clever observation about life.

Bard (áàðä, áàõøè) - a professional singer and poet among ancient Celts, whose occupation was to compose and sing verses in honour of heroes and their deeds.

Blank Verse (îr øåúð)- Poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. Blank verse attempts to sound like spoken English, so every line need not be perfectly regular.

Canto (reøèr) - one of the main divisions of a long poem.

Classicism (êëàññèñèçì, ìóìòîçèéëèê) - a movement in art and literature which arose in the 17th century in France. It revived the principles of antique Greek and Roman literature and art. Classicists cultivated in their works formal elegance, observance of balance, control of emotions. Their works were marked by strict regulation of genre and styles.

Comedy (êîìåäèÿ) - a play of amusing character, in which either wit or good humour prevails, usually with a happy end.

Didactic (äèäàêòèê, ïàíä-íàñè[àò áåðóâ÷è, òàðáèÿâèé) - moralizing or instructive characteristic of literature.

Enlightenment (ìàúðèôàòïàðâàðëèê). This term characterizes the development of science and arts and the triumph of reason over ignorance in the 17th and 18th centuries. Enlighteners were given this name because they considered enlightenment to be the only means by which reorganization of society could be brought about. The enlighteners wanted to bring knowledge, that is “light” to the people.

Epic - A long narrative poem in elevated style presenting the adventures of a central hero who possesses superhuman qualities and generally embodies national ideals.

Epiphany - a moment of heightened awareness that can occur as a result of a trivial encounter, object, or event; a moment of enlightenment in which the underlying truth, essential nature, or meaning of something is suddenly made clear.

Existentialism - is a philosophical movement that developed in Europe during the XIX and XX centuries. The movement is called existentialism because most of its members are primarily interested in the nature of existence or being, by which they usually mean human existence.

Fable (ìàñàë) - a short simple story, frequåntly told about animals, and always embodying a moral truth.

Fabliau (ôàáëèî) - a sort of versified story popular in the Middle Ages, marked by wit, coarseness and brevity.

Fiction - (áàäèèé íàñð) a type of literature drawn from the imagination of the author that tells about imaginary people and happenings. Novels and short stories are fiction.

Flashback - An interruption in a narrative to relate events that have happened earlier.

Folk Ballad - a story told or sung in verse, transmitted orally from generation to generation

Humanism (ãóìàíèçì, èíñîíïàðâàðëèê) - a disposition to treat other human beings with kindness, love and compassion. In the period of Renais-sance humanism became the new philosophy. It promoted the principles of equality of men irrespective of their social origin, race and religion.

Humour (þìîð) - a device used in literature and intended to improve slight imperfections. The object of humour is a funny incident or an odd feature of human character, which we laugh at good-naturedly. It should not be confused with irony and satire, the latter being aimed at ridiculing grave vices, mostly from the sphere of social life.

Metaphysical Poetry - highly intellectual verse filled with complex and far-fetched metaphors. Metaphysical poets wrote both love lyrics and medi-tative poems that displayed their wit and learning.

Narrative Poetry ([èêîÿ rèëóâ÷è øåúðèÿò) - poems that tell a story. The epic is an example of a long narrative poem, and the folk ballad is a short narrative poem.

Naturalism ( íàòóðàëèçì) is accurate representation of nature literature and art, drawing and painting of things in a way true to nature.

Pamphlet (ïàìôëåò, áðîøþðà) - a book of a few sheets of print, com-monly with a paper cover.

Pastoral (rèøëîr [à¸òèãà áàuèøëàíãàí øåúð)- a conventional form of lyric poetry presenting an idealized picture of rural life.

Prologue (ïðîëîã, ìóràääèìà) - a section preceding the main body of a work and serving as an introduction.

Protagonist (àñàð rà[ðàìîíè, ïåðñîíàæ) - the leading character or hero in a literary work.

Rationalism - a philosophy that emphasized the role of reason rather than of sensory experience and faith in answering basic questions of human existence. It was most influential during the Age of Reason (1660-1780).

Realism (ðåàëèçì) in literature is showing of real life, facts, etc in a true way, omitting nothing that is ugly or painful, and idealizing nothing.

Renaissance ( óéuîíèø äàâðè) - a time of cultural development in Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries.

Restoration (ðåñòàâðàöèÿ, ràéòà òèêëàíèø) - the period of re-establishment of monarchy in 1660.

Romanticism (ðîìàíòèçì) - a literary movement which came into being in English literature at the beginning of the 19th century. Imagination and emotion played a leading role in the works of the representatives of this trend. Unlike realism, it tends to portray the uncommon. The material selected tends to deal with extraordinary people in unusual setting having unusual experiences.

Satire (ñàòèðà) - use of ridicule, irony, sarcasm in writing or speech for the purpose of exposing some moral or social vice.

Science fiction (èëìèé ôàíòàñòèêà)- a fictional literary work that uses scientific and technological facts and hypotheses as a basis for stories about such subjects as extraterrestrial beings, adventures in the future or on other planets, and travel through time. Science fiction is a form of fantasy.

Sentimentalism (ñåíòèìåíòàëèçì) - a literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which marked a new stage in the evolution of the Enlightenment. The term is taken from the French word “sentiment” which means “feeling”. Sentimentalists paid much attention to the description of the inner world of the characters, they believed in innate virtue of man and his ability of moral improvement. They considered that civilization was harmful to humanity, that man should live close to nature and be free from the corrupting influence of town life.

Sonnet (ñîíåò) is a poem of 14 lines divided into two quatrains ( 4-line groups) and two terzets (3-line groups). It was brought to perfection by the great Italian poet Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374). During the period of Renaissance sonnets in English Literature were written by Wyatt, Surrey and Shakespeare. Among the foremost English masters of the sonnet during later centuries, are John Milton, William Wordsworth, John Keats, Dante Gabriel Rosetty, Algernon Charls Swinburne and Oscar Wilde.

Stream of consciousness (cåçãè îrèìè) is a technique in which a writer moves directly inside character's minds with complete omniscience. Inner feelings, memories, ideas and observations are portrayed as occurring simultaneously with external experience.

Symbolism (ñèìâîëèçì )- a trend in literature which appeared in France at the end of the 19th century. Symbolists aimed at representing ideas and emotions by indirect suggestions rather than direct expressions. The symbolists attached symbolic meaning to particular images, words, sounds.

Tragedy (òðàãåäèÿ, ôîæèà) - a dramatic composition, treating of sor-rowful or terrible events in a serious and dignified style, with an unhappy or disastrous ending.

Victorians (âèêòîðèàíëàð) - a conventional term applied to the English writers who lived and worked in the so-called Victorian age (1837-1901)

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