The linguistic construction of gender in English language culture based on rap

The values tend to change over time, too. Male artists start making fun of pursuit for money and beautiful images only, they find it ridiculous. Let us look at the lyrics of the "Thrift Shop" by Macklemore & Ryan Lewis. The main character goes to buy clothing from thrift stores, which is a place where cheap used clothes is sold, and buys ridiculous outfits: "dressed in all pink", "draped in a leopard mink", and he is happy for looking outstanding and funny: "I am stuntin' and flossin'". Unrealistic beauty standards are teased by Kendrick Lamar in his "HUMBLE.": "I'm so fucking sick and tired of the Photoshop". Thus, there is a change in these terms, too.

And how is the depiction of men by female artists different? Let us address the second column of Table 1 (Appendix 2). As we can see, this column has more vocabulary units than the second column of Table 2 (Appendix 2), so, female artists talk about men more often than about woman, which once again illustrates the central role of men in the current view of the world. However, there are points of difference in the use of vocabulary items, which is to be addressed further.

The two nouns most frequently used by women are 'boy' and 'baby', and both of them have the meaning of a child, of being underaged. They can be used on purpose, to highlight the lack of seriousness and reliability of a man, e.g., "the cutest boy", "you're the fliest thing up in here boy" (Lil' Romeo -- My Baby); "so baby bye bye" (Jonell (ft. Method Man) -- Round and Round). This idea can be supported by the use of other collocations like "fun toy" (Lil' Romeo -- My Baby), "a straight trophy" (Doggy's Angels (feat. LaToiya) -- Baby if You're Ready), so, a man is nothing more than a means of entertainment here, some type of a reward. However, sometimes it is just a way of showing love and being gentle: "I just want you to be my baby" (50 Cent (ft. Nate Dogg & Monica) -- 21 Questions), "I call him baby" (Nicki Minaj -- Your Love).

The noun 'man', on the contrary, is hardly used frequently. It tends to serve as a neutral address, like in "you man look good" (Cardi B & Bruno Mars -- Please Me). The word "nigga" tends to be a substitute for this noun. It is used more often but still has neutral connotations: "I mean that nigga must be from the motherland" (Nicki Minaj -- Your Love), "cut a nigga off" (Cardi B -- Bodak Yellow), "give a nigga the chills" (Lil' Kim (ft. 50 Cent) -- Magic Stick). As can be seen, however, even the neutral nouns are used in sexual context out in the context of relationships, so, a number of other sex-related words are used as well.

There is an image of a man as a strong and powerful patron who cares for his woman and can control her. It can be noticed when the words like 'daddy', 'papa' and 'boss' are used: "super prince could not get me to change my name papa" (Missy Elliott -- Work It), "just me and my boss" (Rick Ross (ft. Drake & Chrisette Michele) -- Aston Martin Music). Another example of such a framework is demonstrated in Rihanna's "you're trying to save me" (Eminem (ft. Rihanna) -- The Monster). The strength and harshness of male characters can be noticed in the phrase "tote a Glock boy" (Missy Elliott (feat. Nas, Eve and Q-Tip) -- Hot Boyz ) meaning a guy carrying a pistol with him So, men protect women and have much power over them, and women accept that.

On the other hand, there is a totally different image of men in the lyrics created by female artists, too. Men are sometimes depicted as those of low intellect, ones who are controlled easily: a man is called "a slave again" (Missy Elliott -- Work It), a worker in "you a worker, bitch" (Cardi B -- Bodak Yellow) and a fool in "you's a fool" (Jonell (ft. Method Man) -- Round and Round). Nevertheless, there are not as many negative images of males in the songs sung by women as those positive.

3.2 The image of females in rap songs

As it has been mentioned earlier, there are fewer examples of naming and describing female characters in rap songs. However, the images are extremely bright and are worth a deeper analysis.

When we look into the first column of Table 2 (Appendix 2), we can see that the words 'gal' or 'girl' were used in almost half of the songs: there are 69 songs in which male artists call women like that. Just like with the word 'boy', it has a meaning of a child, so, we suggest that a less serious attitude to women is demonstrated via using the word 'girl' instead of 'woman'. The examples of usage are the following: "a real bad girl" (Mr Cheeks -- Lights, Camera, Action!), "I need a girl to make my wife" (Diddy (ft. Usher & Loon) -- I Need a Girl), "good girls gone bad" (Jay-Z (ft. Alicia Keys) -- Empire State of Mind), "beautiful girls all over the world" and "girl you make me wanna sing" (B.o.B (ft. Bruno Mars) -- Nothin' on You). Overall, the word is neutral, but the choice of it over the alternatives speaks volumes.

The next word used almost as frequently as the noun 'girl' is 'baby'. The fact that it means a child has already been mentioned earlier. We can also establish a parallel between the use of this word with reference to women and the word 'daddy' with reference to men. Once again, we may suggest that it either is related to the fact that a woman, be it a girlfriend or just a one-night stand, is not taken seriously and is perceived to be on a lower level. "Baby, please come back" (Eminem (ft. Rihanna) -- Love the Way You Lie), "I get high with my baby" (Fetty Wap -- Trap Queen), "my lil' baby" (Kodak Black (ft. Travis Scott & Offset) -- Zeze), "I'll be there for you baby" (504 Boyz -- Wobble Wobble) and many more are the examples of use. As we can see, the general meaning is positive, but still there is some degree of degrading treatment can be spotted.

The word 'shawty' / 'shorty' / 'shouty' is used synonymously to the noun 'baby' but less often. It is supposed to have originated from the word 'short' and have been used to refer to anyone considered short (Jones, 2007). It has lost its direct meaning and transformed into a number of variants. Still, we can also trace the level of degrading treatment here, as the referent is shorter than a speaker, not necessarily literally. This shade of meaning is presented in such phrases as "grab your shorty" (504 Boyz -- Wobble Wobble), "shorty come live with me for the night" (Mr. Cheeks -- Lights, Camera, Action!), "I'ma get shorty here" (50 Cent -- Just a Lil Bit), "hey shawty what I gotta do to get you home" and "shawty, yeah, she was worth the money" (Flo Rida (ft. T-Pain) -- Low), "shawty mixing up the vodka with the LaCroix" (Post Malone -- Wow). As we can see, the word is also frequently used in a sexual context.

The next extremely popular way to address to women in rap songs is by using the word 'bitch'. It originally meant a female animal like dog, wolf or fox, but it is used in figurative meaning by hip-hop artists. It has a heavily negative connotation and is generally used as an insult. This can be demonstrated with the help of the following examples: "but a bitch can't get a dollar out of me" and "bitches come and go" (50 Cent -- P.I.M.P.), "stupid bitch standing there" (Lil Jon & the East Side Boyz (ft. Ying Yang Twins) -- Get Low), " bitches that owe me sex" (Young Jeezy (ft. Kanye West) -- Put On), "all these bitches just aiming to please" (Nicki Minaj (ft. Drake) -- Moment 4 Life), "the baddest bitch in the world" (Big Sean (ft. Chris Brown) -- My Last). The word tends to be used in order to highlight that it is women that want to have a relationship with a rapper, whereas he does not need in them, and the utterances are frequently extremely disrespectful. Also, sexual context cannot be unnoticed, as it is heavily emphasised by artists, which can be traced from the examples, too.

Sexualisation is the reason why the word 'whore' and its variations such as 'hoe' and 'ho' are used to refer to women extensively. The vocabulary unit is the slang way of saying 'a prostitute', so women in 40 songs by male rappers are basically called prostitutes and are seen as object for sexual intercourse only. We can provide the following examples here: "I gotta move on to the next whore" (J-Kwon -- Tipsy), "look at them hoes' face" (Wiz Khalifa -- Black and Yellow), "ridin' with a hoe named Keisha" (Cash Out -- Cashin' Out), "switchin' my hoes like my flows" (Migos (ft. Lil Uzi Vert) -- Bad and Boujee), "a shakin' booty hoe" (Ying Yang Twins -- Whistle While You Twurk), "get yo' main ho" (Slimm Calhoun (feat. Andrй 3000) -- It's OK). Another alternative to say 'a prostitute' is 'thot', which can also be found in a number of tracks: " your bitch she a thot" (Migos (ft. Lil Uzi Vert) -- Bad and Boujee), "a lil' thot" (Bobby Shmurda -- Hot Boy). One more alternative is the noun 'slut' as in "shut yo' mouth, you dirty slut" (D12 -- Purple Pills). As we can see, there is not only the fact that women are seen as sex objects and are humiliated, they are not even seen as something important, as men can easily switch between them and have multiple partners at once. Here, we can provide a correlation between women being named 'hoes' and men being named 'pimps'. Hence, the dominance of males and sexualisation are demonstrated clearly in such contexts.

Now, let us turn to a pair of nouns 'chicks' and 'momma' and its variants 'moma', 'mami' and 'ma'. The primary meaning of the first noun is a young chicken, but it is used to address a young woman. The latter is formed from the word 'mother' and is used to talk about a woman and has the meaning of an elder or a curvy woman. They are the opposites in terms of age of referents but are interestingly used equally frequently. Let us provide some examples: "I done had pretty chicks with all the right features" (P. Diddy (ft. Usher & Loon) -- I Need a Girl), "you is my new chick" (Twista (ft. Kanye West & Jamie Foxx) -- Slow Jamz), "a independent chick" (Webbie (ft. Lil Phat & Lil Boosie) -- Independent); "look here momma" (Nelly, P. Diddy & Murphy Lee -- Shake Ya Tailfeather), "mami be takin' me higher" (Fabolous (ft. Ne-Yo) -- Make Me Better), "I be calling her mommy" (R. Kelly (ft. T.I. & T-Pain) -- I'm a Flirt). Both of them are often sexualised but do not have a negative connotation.

In comparison with other vocabulary units, the noun 'woman' is used not as many times as most of its synonyms. It tends to be implemented in negative contexts or in neutral contexts when the word needs to create an effect of seriousness. We can see this phenomenon in such quotations as "a woman so heartless" (Kanye West -- Heartless), "they tell me don't trust a woman" (Chingy (ft. Tyrese) -- Pullin' Me Back), "women are possessive" (Lil Wayne (ft. Drake) -- Right Above It). On the other hand, there are multiple cases where the noun 'woman' is used positively in order to reaffirm the seriousness of one's feelings towards that woman, as in "you're my Wonder Woman" (B.o.B (ft. Bruno Mars) -- Nothin' on You), "beautiful black woman" (Lil Wayne (ft. Drake) -- Right Above It), "mature women with more than me" (Drake (ft. T.I. & Swizz Beatz) -- Fancy). Overall, matureness is the main aspect of the meaning of the noun which is preserved throughout all of the tracks, while contexts can be very different.

The use of humiliating nouns is supported by the use of corresponding adjectives, such as 'crazy', 'mad', 'stupid', etc. So, women are frequently seen as unintelligent and materialistic creatures who might cause problems and be unpleasant to interact with, in the earlier hits in particular. They are described as "your little nosy-ass homegirls" (Outkast -- Ms Jackson), "needy dawg" (Coo Coo Cal -- My Projects), "confusing me" and "you abusing me" (P. Diddy (ft. Usher & Loon) -- I Need a Girl). Artists use such phrases as "that's no excuse to be living all crazy" (City High -- What Would You Do), "fuckin my head up" (Jonell (ft. Method Man) -- Round and Round), "she be so mad at me" (Kanye West -- Heartless), "little stupid ass bitch" (Big Sean (ft. E-40) -- I Don't Fuck with You), etc. All in all, there are many more examples of degrading attitude to female characters expressed in attributions which construct a negative image of the female gender.

Another important aspect of describing women by male rappers is paying much attention to their appearance. Female characters are described with the help of such vocabulary units as 'cute', 'hot', 'pretty', etc.: "a curly-headed cutie" (Kyle (ft. Lil Yachty) -- iSpy), "she's on fire, she's so hot" (Pitbull & Ne-Yo -- Time of Our Lives), "evil girls had the prettiest face" (Juice Wrld -- Lucid Dreams). A lot of attention is paid to female figures: "I like them thick" (Nelly, P. Diddy & Murphy Lee -- Shake Ya Tailfeather), "wobbly, wobbly, ass bouncing" (504 Boyz -- Wobble Wobble), "chick with a phat body" (Mr. Cheeks -- Lights, Camera, Action!), "she workin' on her glutes" (Travis Scott -- Sicko Mode). Women are also referred to as 'strippers' and 'models' which both have strong associations with appealing appearance: "look like strippers in their real clothes" (Rae Sremmurd (ft. Gucci Mane) -- Black Beatles), "I'mma send a model home" (Kyle (ft. Lil Yachty) -- iSpy). In general, the appearance of women is talked about a lot, whereas there is no such thing concerning men. However, the beauty standards started to be criticised by male artists in the 2010s: "them other stay plastic" (B.o.B (ft. Bruno Mars) -- Nothin' on You); "woke up in that Monte Carlo with the ugly Kardashian" (Eminem -- Berzerk); "show me something natural like ass with some stretch marks" (Kendrick Lamar -- HUMBLE.). The artists start to realise that all the beauty standards and pursuit of perfect face and figure do not make any sense, and a change in songs corresponds with the societal change.

One more noticeable difference in the choice of vocabulary units occurs. The rappers start to use the noun 'lady' in a respectful manner, and it is not done in an ironic way. It is noticeable in such examples as "I showed them other brothers how to treat a lady" (Bow Wow (ft. Ciara) -- Like You), "want you to sing to these ladies" (Lil Jon & the East Side Boyz (ft. Usher and Ludacris) -- Lovers and Friends), "ladies love me" (Chris Brown (ft. Lil Wayne & Busta Rhymes) -- Look at Me Now). The more and more frequent choice of this noun over insulting words like 'bitch', 'hoe', etc. helps to demonstrate a more respectful attitude towards women in rap. This idea can be supported with the fact that attributes like 'independent', 'special', etc. are used: "you special, girl" (Drake -- In My Feelings), and you are unforgettable (French Montana (ft. Swae Lee) -- Unforgettable), "you like my equal never lesser" (DRAM (ft. Lil Yachty) -- Broccoli), "independent with the demeanor of an R&B singer" (Drake (ft. T.I. & Swizz Beatz) -- Fancy). So, beloved women are treated specially, and more images of strong and special female characters are created.

Is the situation the same for the images of women created by female artists? If we look at column 2 of Table 2 (Appendix 2), we can see that the most used word to name women is 'bitch' / 'bitches'. However, unlike in the tracks created by men, it has a less negative connotation. For instance, there are such phrases as "a bitch that's even better" (Missy Elliott -- Work It), "my bitches with a fat ass" (Nicki Minaj -- Anaconda), "I'm 100% that bitch" (Lizzo -- Truth Hurts). On the other hand, if there is a willing to insult a referent, the noun saves its primary meaning: "skinny bitches" (Nicki Minaj -- Anaconda), "all of them bitches I'm badder than" (Drake (ft. Nicki Minaj) -- Make Me Proud". It seems like the use of the noun 'bitch' as often is a response to all the misogynistic insults used by male artists. Furthermore, the patterns existing in hip-hop music were created by men and are only repeated by women in their songs.

The same principle might lie in constantly embracing wealth and luxurious lifestyle. It is considered to be an essential part of hip-hop as a genre. It can be traced in such quotes as "you're gonna be a shining star with fancy clothes" (T.I. (ft. Rihanna) -- Live Your Life), "I'm yelling timber", which is partying till falling down (Pitbull (ft. Kesha) -- Timber), "I'm so fancy" (Iggy Azalea (ft. Charli XCX) -- Fancy), "I came dressed to kill" (Nicki Minaj -- Anaconda), "I'm sorry though 'bout my coins" (Cardi B, Bad Bunny & J Balvin -- I Like It). However, it is now women who earn that money and become rich by themselves, not only men.

Insulting and degrading attitude are also often preserved in the songs created by female artists which is seen from the word 'hoe' being used be multiple women: "slaying these hoes" (Iggy Azalea (ft. Charli XCX) -- Fancy), "don't let these hoes bother me" and "hope you hoes know it ain't cheap" (Cardi B -- Bodak Yellow). As can be seen, the noun tends to sound offensive and is used to humiliate other women. There is a number of utterances having a similar aim, such as "them chickens jackin' my style" (The Black Eyed Peas -- Boom Boom Pow), "your girl actin' stank" (Missy Elliott -- Work It), etc. So, other women are often seen as enemies; there is some level of aggression towards female members of other companies.

As for sexualisation and objectification, they are also extensively represented in the lyrics by female artists. They describe their figures and often sound lustful: "Double D up hoes", meaning the breasts of DD size (Drake (ft. Nicki Minaj) -- Make Me Proud), "like I'm givin' lessons in physics" (Iggy Azalea (ft. Charli XCX) -- Fancy), "my bitches with a fat ass" (Nicki Minaj -- Anaconda), etc. The adjective 'hot' is used especially frequently in these terms: "spicy mami, hot tamale, hotter than a Somali" (Cardi B, Bad Bunny & J Balvin -- I Like It) and "I'm the hottest in the street" (Cardi B -- Bodak Yellow). It highlights the sexual attractiveness of a woman and makes them look desired by men. However, it seems like such image of women, in general, might do more harm than good to women, which is why several artists use such phrases as "Lil' Kim not a hore" (Lil' Kim (ft. 50 Cent) -- Magic Stick), "I'm not a prostitute" (Missy Elliott -- Work It). So, not all women want to be seen as sexual objects only and try to confront this image.

One more aspect worth mentioning is that women are often seen within the framework of their relationship with men. A big part of the vocabulary units and collocations describe women in their love affair and tell the listeners how they are or were treated by men. There is an abundance of the examples showing that: "lovin' you like endlessly" (Missy Elliott (feat. Nas, Eve and Q-Tip) -- Hot Boyz), "showing you love" (Doggy's Angels (feat. LaToiya) -- Baby if You're Ready), "tired of you stressin me" (Jonell (ft. Method Man) -- Round and Round), "I'm crazy over you" (Nelly (ft. Kelly Rowland) -- Dilemma), "I'll be the one you won't forget" (Pitbull (ft. Kesha) -- Timber), "gonna love ya until you hate me" (Iggy Azalea (ft. Rita Ora) -- Black Widow), "I'm way too good to you" (Drake (ft. Rihanna) -- Too Good) and "I will never, ever, ever, ever, ever be your side chick" (Lizzo -- Truth Hurts). As it can be noticed, there are two main attitudes towards love and men reflected in these quotations: the first one is trying to express affection and promise eternal love, which is more characteristic of earlier tracks, whereas the other is proving that a woman suffered from her relationships and is hurt by a man, which can be noticed in the more recent hits. Thus, there is some contradiction in how women are depicted by women, and they seem to gradually obtain independence.

To finish up the part about the image of women in rap songs, we cannot but mention the popularity of more and more female rappers. If we look attentively at the 2010s chart, we will notice that there are many more popular rap songs performed by women. For instance, the year 2014 was the year when for most listened to rap songs in a row were the ones performed by women. They are "Timber" by Pitbull and Kesha, "Fancy" by Iggy Azalea and Charli XCX, "Anaconda" by Nicki Minaj and "Black Widow" by Iggy Azalea and Rita Ora. Women gave got more representation in the community and gained more independence and popularity.

3.3 Gender inequality represented in hip-hop music via language

Having completed the analysis of the lyrics of top hits, we are ready to outline the main tendencies of showing men and women in rap songs and answer the question whether the images differ depending on artists' gender. It is worth mentioning that gender construction occurs even if the main topic of a song is far from talking about men and women, as the vocabulary use and the image of a rapper themselves are still present in the lyrics.

As men were represented and talked about much more than women, let us start with their depiction. To begin with, masculinity in rap is, first of all, being strong and powerful, and this idea is represented both by male and female artists. There are many aspects of what is considered to be 'manly'. In rap songs, men are hard and even aggressive, especially when it comes to their enemies, and criminal is not rare for such a 'thug' person. Male characters drink alcohol and abuse substances, which is a part of their wild lifestyle. Furthermore, a real man is supposed to have a lot of money, either earned from criminal or from making music, whereas having little money is considered to be a shame.

One more topic which is widely talked about in rap songs is the attitude of men to women. Real men generally seem to not care about women as persons, they are used to seeing them as objects for sex, and it is more than acceptable for a man to have multiple partners at the same time. Moreover, men in the tracks try to have dominance and control over their girlfriends, calling themselves 'daddy'. Sexual intercourse is the main aspect that seems to interest men in such relationships as they want to have fun.

On the other hand, there has been a new tendency of showing men not only always enjoying themselves and running the world. The current issues of loneliness, being broken-hearted and questioning one's own life are raised in the songs of the 2010s. Male characters now do not have to be strong and cold-hearted all of the time. Both women and men show some males as being vulnerable, and men seem to accept the fact that they can feel bad sometimes and do not have to cover it up. 2018 and 2019 were the years when this tendency was especially clear when the songs like "Wow" by Post Malone, "Lucid Dreams" by Juice Wrld, "In My Feelings" by Drake and "Sad!" by XXXTentacion got into the top charts.

As far as the image of women is concerned, they are mainly seen from their relationship with men, be it a song by a male or a female artist. It seems like women are sexual objects only, and to adapt to this stereotype, female artists treat female characters in their songs the same. Overall sexualisation and objectification can easily be noticed, as artists talk about girls' figures, appearance, their lustful behaviours and the use of sexualising nouns to address to them such as 'hoe'. Both men and women view women from the point of view of bodies they have, and there is plenty of description of sexualised body parts in lyrics.

The romantic relationship framework is used to depict practically all of the female characters. For men, they are the ones who can be easily cheated on, and they can have several partners simultaneously. Women also tell how loving they are and promise eternal love to their men. However, there is a change in the way women are seen recently in songs written by men and women. The noun 'lady' is used by men to refer to their girlfriend; they try to prove that their attitude towards that one woman is special. Female artists start to claim that they deserve adequate treatment and explain that it is not only women who need to have relationships.

Misogyny, both external and internal, is represented in lyrics, too, as a lot of offensive references and attributions occur in the lyrics analysed. Women are called 'bitches' and are claimed to be materialistic and longing for money only. Men frequently call their female characters unintelligent and associate their problems with women. On the other hand, in many more recent songs women try to build an image of a woman who is wealthier and smarter than men. Female rappers started to laugh at their admirers as a response to the constant hate and disrespect towards women, which can be associated with the rise of feminist ideas.

Gradually an image of an independent woman appears, and it is presented both in the songs written by men and women. Female characters try to regain respect and self-sufficiency. Women now have respect for themselves and are not ready to humiliate themselves to be more appealing to men. It can be easily noticed in the songs by female rappers that there are a lot of images of strong women who deserve the best.

All things considered, it can be claimed that gender roles are substantially constructed in the hip-hop hits of the 21st century, according to the patriarchal worldview. However, the boundaries between the two genders are step by step becoming less obvious: it is not only strong men and stupid women now, but the images of genders are also getting more versatile. The social shift is noticeable in the tracks of the 2010s, as the attitudes to men and women are shown slightly differently now.



Conclusion

During the current research, we have completed the following objectives:

- the lyrics of 162 hip-hop hits from "Billboard" top charts were analysed;

- the words and phrases used to describe, name or refer to male and female characters were highlighted and added into one out four groups ("Men about men", "Men about women", "Women about men" and "Women about women");

- the characteristic traits of the images were compared and contrasted, similarities and points of difference between them were indicated;

- the main peculiarities were outlined and were put into the social context.

Thus, the aim of the research was reached, as the ways linguistic gender construction occurs are defined and described. Thus, the research questions have been answered, too. We have outlined the most frequently used gender-imbued vocabulary units, pointed out the differences in the ways male and female artists depict genders in their songs and explained the social background behind those traits.

Based on the conducted research, we can claim that gender construction in the most popular rap songs of the 21st century is obvious, and specific tendencies can be outlined. The vocabulary used to talk about men highlights their strength and powerfulness. Female characters, on the contrary, are shown as less intelligent persons and are objectified and sexualised a lot. However, there is a tendency to the shift towards a less degrading attitude towards women, and female artists try to confront the existing stereotypes, due to the rise of feminist ideas. Men are shown as vulnerable and sensitive people more and more often, as the awareness of mental health developed. The ways men and women speak about genders are different, and women tend to choose less offensive vocabulary in their songs than male artists. All things considered, we can state that the hypothesis of the research paper has been confirmed.



References

1. Adams, T. M., & Fuller, D. B. (2006). The words have changed but the ideology remains the same: Misogynistic lyrics in rap music. Journal of Black Studies, 36(6), 938-957.

2. Agawu, K., & Agawu, V. K. (2014). Music as discourse: Semiotic adventures in romantic music. Oxford University Press.

3. Biddlecombe G. (1992). Feminine endings: music, gender and sexuality by Susan McClary. Pop. Music 11, 373-376.

4. Boroditsky, L. (2001). Does language shape thought?: Mandarin and English speakers' conceptions of time. Cognitive psychology, 43(1), 1-22.

5. Bucholtz, M., & Hall, K. (2004). Theorizing identity in language and sexuality research. Language in society, 33(4), 469-515.

6. Bucholtz, M. (2014). The feminist foundations of language, gender, and sexuality research. The handbook of language, gender, and sexuality (pp. 21-47). New Jersey: Wiley Blackwell.

7. Chafetz, J. S. (2006). The varieties of gender theory in sociology. Handbook of the sociology of gender (pp. 3-23). Boston: Springer.

8. Chang, J. (2007). Can't stop won't stop: A history of the hip-hop generation. New York: St. Martin's Press.

9. Chomsky, N. (1968). Language and mind. San Diego: Harcourt Brace.

10. Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on language. NY: Pantheon.

11. Colley, A. (2008). Young People's Musical Taste: Relationship with Gender and Gender?Related Traits 1. Journal of applied social psychology, 38(8), 2039-2055.

12. Culler, J. (2009). Lyric, History, and Genre. New Literary History, 40(4), 879-899.

13. Dunyasheva, L.G. (2012). Lingvokulturnye osobennosti konstruirovaniya gendera v Afroamerikanskom pesennom diskurse (na materiale janrov bluz i rap) [Linguocultural features of gender construction in African American song discourse (based on blues and rap)]. PhD dissertation. Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Linguistics University of Nizhny Novgorod".

14. Foucault, M. (1990). The history of sexuality: An introduction. NY: Vintage.

15. Foucault, M. (2012). The history of sexuality, vol. 2: The use of pleasure. NY: Vintage.

16. Gritsenko, E.S. & Dunyasheva, L.G. (2013). Yazykovye osobennosti repa v aspekte globalizatsii [Linguistic features of rap in terms of globalisation]. Political Linguistics, 2 (44), 141-148.

17. Gritsenko, E.S. (2005). Yazyk. Gender. Diskurs [Language. Gender. Discourse]. Monography. Nizhniy Novgorod: Nizhni Novgorod University Press

18. Harris, R. A. (1995). The linguistics wars. Oxford University Press on Demand.

19. Hearn, J., & Morgan, D. H. J. (Eds.). (2014). Men, masculinities and social theory (RLE social theory). Routledge.

20. Huggins, N. I., & Rampersad, A. (1971). Harlem Renaissance (Vol. 700). New York: Oxford University Press.

21. Irvine, J. T., Gal, S., & Kroskrity, P. V. (2009). Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. Linguistic anthropology: A reader, 1, 402-434.

22. Jespersen, O. (2013). Language: its nature and development. Routledge.

23. Kennedy, R. (2008). Nigger: The strange career of a troublesome word. NY: Vintage.

24. Krasnykh, V.V. (1998). Virtualnya realnost ili realnaya virtualnost? chelovek, soznanie, kommunikatsiya [Virtual reality or real virtuality? human, cognition, communication]. Moscow: Dialog-MGU.

25. Labov, W. (1972). Academic ignorance and black intelligence. National Archive.

26. Lakoff, G. (1991). Metaphor and war: The metaphor system used to justify war in the Gulf. Peace Research, 25-32.

27. Lakoff, G. (2008). Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. University of Chicago Press.

28. Lakoff, R. (1973). Language and woman's place. Language in society, 2(1), 45-79.

29. Lenneberg, E. (1962). The Relation of Language to the Formation of Concepts. Synthese, 14, 102-109.

30. Maslova, V.A. (2005). Kognitivnaya lingvistika [Cognitive linguistics]. Minsk: TetraSystems.

31. McClary, S. (1991). Feminine endings: Music, gender, and sexuality. University of Minnesota Press.

32. Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct. New York: William Morrow & co.

33. Prasad, K. M., Angothu, H., Mathews, M. M., & Chaturvedi, S. K. (2016). How are social changes in the twenty first century relevant to mental health?. Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry, 32(3), 227.

34. Ransby, B., & Matthews, T. (1993). Black popular culture and the transcendence of patriarchal illusions. Race & Class, 35(1), 57-68.

35. Rap. (2020). In Cambridge Online Dictionary. Retrieved March 12, 2020, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/rap

36. Ronald, L. (1991). Concept, Image and Symbol. The Cognitive Basis of Grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

37. Rose, T. (1994). Black noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America. Middletown: Wesleyan.

38. Rosen, Charles (2000). The New Musicology. Critical Entertainments: Music Old and New, pp. 255-272.

39. Stockard, J. (2014) Gender Socialization. Handbook of the Sociology of Gender. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. Boston: Springer.

40. Sapir, E. (1921). Language. An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt Brace.

41. Sapir, E. (1968). Selected Writings of Edward Sapir. University of California Press.

42. Sapir, E. (1990). The collected works of Edward Sapir (Vol. 8). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

43. van Berkum, J.J.A. (1996). The psycholinguistics of grammatical gender: Studies in language comprehension and production. Doctoral Dissertation, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics. Nijmegen, Netherlands: Nijmegen University Press

44. Whorf, B. L. (2012). Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge: MIT Press.



Application

1. Missy Elliott (feat. Nas, Eve and Q-Tip) -- Hot Boyz (November 27, 1999)

This is for my ghetto motherfuckers

Uh hey, are you really a hot boy?

(Hot boy)

Oh, check me (hot boy)

What's your name? 'Cause I'm impressed

Can you treat me good? I won't settle for less

You a hot boy, a rock boy

A fun toy, tote a Glock boy

Where you live? Is it by yourself?

Can I move wit' you? Do you need some help?

I cook, boy, I'll give you more

I'm a fly girl, and I like those

Hot boys

Baby, you got what I want

See, 'cause y'all be drivin' Lexus jeeps

And the Benz jeeps and the Lincoln jeeps

Nothin' cheaper, got them Platinum Visa's

Hot boys

Baby, you got what I want

See, 'cause y'all be drivin' Jaguars

And the Bentley's and the Rolls Royce

Playin' hardballs wit' them Platinum Visa's

Is that your car, the XK8?

Are you ridin' alone, can I be your date?

Come get me, get me

Don't diss me, don't trick me

Got some friends, can they come too?

Can you hook them up wit' some boys like you?

A hot boy, a rock boy, on top boy

And I like those

Yo, I'mma dig in yo' pockets

Dig in yo' wallets

Is there money unfounded?

Yeah, you got my heart poundin'

You a hot boy, drive a drop boy

With alot boy, and you tote a Glock boy

Give me no reason, I know that you treatin'

These diamonds I'm needin', make you believe it

I want a lot, boy, with a hot boy

Got a fun toy and you tote a Glock boy

Hot boy

Baby, you got what I want

Won't you really come and satisfy me

I be lovin' you like endlessly (everyday, all day)

Where the Lexus jeeps, and the Benz jeeps

And the Lincoln jeeps, and the Bentley's

And the Jaguars, and the fly cars, uh uh, uh uh?

Where you at? Uh uh, yeah yeah

Where your Lexus jeeps, and the Benz jeeps

And the Lincoln jeeps, and the Bentley's

And the Jaguars, and the fly cars, uh uh

Where you at? Uh uh..

Yeah, yeah, yeah yeah

Hot boys, hot boys (I'm out)

Hot boys, I like 'em like that

2. Ying Yang Twins -- Whistle While You Twurk (April 1, 2000)

Whistle while you twurk (whistle)

Go head and start and make that pussy fart and

Whistle while you twurk (twurk some)

HOOK:

Ying yang in this thang (ying yang) (x8)

Let me see ya make that pussy fart, good Lord

Make it shake like a salt shaker, too hard

Get it up 'till you can't ugh, no mo'

See I love when you hoes take it to tha floor

Baby bounce biggy bounce ugh, it's on you

Shorty you can twurk in your skirt, if you want to

See we came to keep it crunk for ya, all night

Put a dub in da club show me, what I like

Freak bitch make money in da club

Them hoes like to take it off for a thug

You can't come wit nuthin' less than a dub

Or she lookin' at yo ass like a scrub

Them hoes like it when a niggas shoen love

And she'll show you what she really made of

I guarantee yo ass wouldn't get enough

Tell her pop that shit, drop that shit, "What?"

Where them hoes that's buying me a ticket

I thank they all dance at club nikki

Now where them hoes who be spittin' that game

I thank they all dance at tha blue flame

Where them hoes that be hard booty shakin'

I thank they all dance at tha foxxy lady

I know she a shakin' booty hoe no teaser

She ain't no teaser when ya all fat pleaser

Now where them bitches that be quick to show them titties

I thank they all dance at tha magic city

I know some hoe that be quick to take over

You got tha green on your scene and strokers

And whistle while you twurk, gotta make that money fo' sure

Got some nice looking tities, body look pretty

So dont be scared to twurk

Say them niggas in tha club wanna hate

Wanna touch her pussy and never wanna pay

I said shouty fuck that nigga do your thang

I see your crunk tiger stripe G- strang

It's bout that dollar bill then peppermint

See them hoes represent for their rent

If you in a booty club and you get your money spent

And baby mama now she wonder where it went

Some of these bitches be real, they hard knock

Once you get em crunk they start, they won't stop

Hoes get naked for cheese, they love that

Take tha baddest bitch in tha club, I fucked that

Some these bitches been crunk since first day

Some of these bitches in tha club, they don't play

Half these bitches who shake it, they turn gay

Niggas gone pay to see pussy, anyway (ahh, ahh)

Some of these niggas be walkin' tha thin line

Fuckin' wit' these hoes wit' no clothes and no mind

Baby girl out to get money she gone shine

Everyday of work she gone be there on time

Her pussy poppin' shouty be sweatin' like she noid

Kinda like tha way that thang beat like a heart

Turn around yeah that's it, good lord

Tryin' to do a Chinese split and make it fart

Ying Yang in this thang, from the A-T-eeL

Whistle while you twurk if you really real

In tha club smelling like some wood

In my neighbourhood

Girls get crunk in the piz ball

If you sit down, get up off tha wall

Males only speak, if the females flirt

If you get crunk, whistle while you twurk

3. 504 Boyz -- Wobble Wobble (April 15, 2000)

Yo', this Jay-tweezie

Keepin it live off the heezie fo' cheezy

With them 504 Boyz you dig, check it

This here is to played loud as possible

Preferably in residential neighborhoods and night clubs

Grab your shorty and let's go

Now won't you wobble wobble

Let me see you shake it, shake it

Now won't you drop it, drop it

Ohh, take it, take it

You already know what's happenin' when I step in this bitch

And I know you've heard of me

Cause I'm right there off of GT and Derbigny

You've been 'bout serving it, every since you heard my song

I got you bucked up, you want that camouflage love, huh

You got me fucked up

I just want to see you wobble, like your momma's won that lotto

Like your daddy full of that bottle

Like your brother when he caught them hollows

Like them G.T. bitches, them Saint T. bitches, my No Limit bitches

Them boss bitches who 'bout they riches, and it ain't no secret

They want that soldier dick that you only get from that soldier clique

That Whoa! bitch I told ya' dick, 'welling up

We drop it like it's hotter, from the dance floor to the Ramada

Giving up them peso's, I thinks nada, look

Now when you shake that ass, I get rocked up

You got a boyfriend boo (Wodie, my man locked up)

Everytime you wobble wobble it gets me horny

So I can ride that ass from the night until in the morning

I could respect your mind, if you could respect the game

Is it cool to fuck, or is this about some change

I like it when I see 'em at the club, shaking that thang

Girl you really got me thinking 'bout taking that thang, come here

Now when they wobbly, wobbly, ass bouncing everywhere

The way she drop it like that, I can't help but to stare

Got a nigga saying "Ohhh girl"

Come a little closer, I'm trying to make you out my boo girl

Don't move girl, I'm on my way to the floor baby

Coming for mine, want to see if you can really shake it

Let's bump and grind, girl you did that

The way you bounce it and shake it, you know I'm with that

I'm trying to get that, cause you got me rock hard (Ohh my God)

Got me humpin and humpin it (huh) humpin like a dog, WOOF

Back your ass, Whoo, the fuck up

I thought I told you, put your meanest face on for me

And them steel-toe boots, gonna stomp your ass

Want it, hunt it, some old niggas ready to jump your ass

I'll be there for you baby, just beep me

Start paging soldier, when you want a freak male

I like freaking at your man's house, when he leave I toot

What would he say if he knew that I was sexing you

You want love let's make it, I just can't wait 'til you naked

You lick your lips it makes me hard

Daydreamin' of screamin' and fiendin'

You creamin' for sex, that you gonna get this evening

Ya' heard me

4. Nelly -- Country Grammar (Hot Shit) (May 27, 2000)

Hot Shit (Hot Shit)

Mmmmm, I'm going down, down, baby, your street, in a Range Rover

(Come on!)

Street sweeper baby, cocked, ready to let it go

(Hot Shit)

Shimmy, shimmy, cocoa what, listen to it pound

Light it up and take a puff, pass it to me now

Mmmmm, you can find me in St. Louis rolling on dubs

Smoking on dubs in clubs, blowing up like Cocoa Puffs

Sipping Bud', getting perved and getting dubbed

Daps and hugs, mean mugs and shoulder shrugs and it's

All because accumulated enough scratch just to

Navigate it, wood decorated on chrome and it's

Candy painted, fans fainting while I'm entertaining

Wild, ain't it? How me and money get acquainted

I hang with Hannibal Lector (Hot shit!)

So feel me when I bring it

Sing it loud (What?), I'm from the Lou' and I'm proud

Run a mile for the 'cause, I'm righteous above the law

Player my style's raw, I'm Born to Mack, like Todd Shaw

Forget the fame and the glamour, give me D's with a rubber hammer

My grammar be's Ebonics, gin, tonic, and chronic

Fuck Bionic, it's ironic, slamming niggas like Onyx

Lunatics till the day I die

I run more game than the Bulls and Sonics

Who say pretty boys can't be

Wild niggas, loud niggas, O.K. Corral niggas

Foul niggas, running the club and busting the crowd, nigga

"How nigga?" Ask me again and it's going down, nigga

Now nigga, come to the circus and watch me clown, nigga

Pound niggas, what you be giving when I'm around nigga

Frown niggas, talking that shit when I leave the town, nigga

Say now, can you hoes come out to play now

Hey, I'm ready to cut you up any day now

Play by my rules Boo and you gon' stay high

May I answer your Third Question like A.I

Say hi, to my niggas left in the slamma

From St. Louis to Memphis, from Texas back up to Indiana

Chi-Town, K.C., Motown to Alabama

L.A., New York Yankee niggas, to Hotlanta

Louisiana, all my niggas with "Country Grammar"

Smoking blunts in Savannah, blow thirty mil', like I'm Hammer

Let's show these cats to make these

Millions so you niggas quit acting silly, mon

Kid quicker than Billy, mon, talking really and I need it mon

Flows, I kick 'em freely mon, especially off Remi, mon

Keys to my Bimmer, mon, holla at Beenie Man

See me, mon, chiefin', rollin' deeper than any mon

Through Jennings mon, through U-City back up to Kingsland

With nice niggas, shiest niggas who snatch yo' life, niggas

Trife niggas who produce and sell the same beat twice, nigga

(Hot shit!) Ice niggas, all over close to never sober

From broke to having brokers: my price-range is Rover

Now I'm knocking like Jehovah; let me in now, let me in now

Bill Gates, Donald Trump, let me in now

Spin now, I got money to lend my friends now

We in now, candy Benz, Kenwood and 10's now

I win now (Woo!), fucking lesbian twins now

Seeing now, through the pen I make my ends now

5. Big L -- Flamboyant (June 24, 2000)

Yeah, yeah! Big L, Corleone

My nigga C-Town, my big brother Big Lee holding it down

Flamboyant, baby, for life

We taking over, coming to a theater near you

Check it out, come on, check it

Make sure my mic is loud and my production is tight

Better watch me 'round your girl if you ain't fuckin' her right

You damn playa haters never want to see me blow

Flamboyant Entertainment CEO

Yo, the spotlight is mine, it ain't his no more

When Lee come home, niggas can't live no more

And I'm straight, keep a Harlem World mindstate

I never lounge where you find Jake

Suprise niggas like a blind date, L rhyme great

And I'mma increase the crime rate for old time's sake

Run with me and I'm a make you a star

When me and my crew hit the clubs, we go straight to the bar

Leave 'em empty, I cruise through Harlem in an M3

Never pay for parties, say my name and I'm in free

I'm on some 100-G car shit, superstar shit

Selling niggas that wet shit right out the jar shit

I'm dumb hot, I'll wreck you and your young flock

Keep the gun cock, represent one block

139, nigga, the Danger Zone

We quick to put a bullet in a stranger's dome

I'm known to kick a rough rhyme and rock much shine

Yo, I'm out, I done took up enough time

We out, no doubt

You know how we do

Flamboyant for life

Big L, Corleone

A smooth kid that'll run up in your baby mother

Corleone is too advanced for y'all

Big L, I'm a pimped-out nigga for real

Big L, Corleone is too advanced for y'all

Yo, it's Corleone and Queen's Most

We bust 'til your whole team ghost

Everywhere we go, we must bring toast

Forever poppin' the chrome, always droppin' a poem

I can write it or recite it off the top of the dome

However you want it is

How I'm gonna give it to you, Big L style

They brought it back to the streets `cause that shit sell now

So pal, back up a bit, give me some elbow space

I represent Harlem World, not Melrose Place

So I'ma lace the jewels up with nice baguettes

Flamboyant is the label that writes the checks

Y'all niggas better stop fronting `cause I might get vexed

And I'ma run up on y'all and slice yours necks

With the machette, pockets heavy

Slang more cane than Eddie; I represent uno tres nueve

Time is money, so I stay late, I'm quick to slide a playmate

Bust off like a tre-eight then vacate

6. Lil Zane (feat. 112) -- Callin' Me (July 15, 2000; September 2, 2000)

I live the life of a celebrity

A made nigga way bigger than them other cats you love to see

Can I talk to you for a minute?

It's like I been doin' a lot of interviews

Just people be callin' my name everywhere, "Hey Zane!"

(so crazy life's so, crazy)

I live the life of a celebrity

A made figga way bigger than them other cats you love to see

I'm getting paid like I'm supposed to

My homies call me on my mobile wanna hang we still close too

I switched positions with them cold cats

I write raps, make millions like that

I like that (hey yeah) really never was a rich man

A rubber band for a wrist band

Got dough and had to switch plans

Trouble still don't stop

The freeway getting chased by some bad bitches

Wanting autographed pictures (oohh)

They want my name tattooed on them

Thinkin' for a minute hit that ass make a move on them

Hey! Hennessey with the chardonnay, mix it

I put the trees in the ??, twist it (whooaa yeah)

A true player smoking purple haze

Two shots in the air for my true thugs out there

(This life I live of mine)

This life I live of mine (yeah)

This life is crazy (yeah)

I waste no time at all (ahuh)

They won't stop calling me (it's goin' down baby)

This life I live of mine (yeah)

This life is crazy (yeah ahuh)

I waste no time at all

They won't stop calling me (ugh)

Calling me, calling me, calling me (Hey Lil' Zane!), say my name! (x2)

Let me explain what the game is like

I did a show in California had to be in Las Vegas the same night

Me and 112 on the same flight and getting tired

It ain't easy being worldwide (worldwide, worldwide, worldwide)

I seen murder come with fame in this rap game

Gotta stay strapped if you rap so I pack thangs

All my dogs pack thangs

And plus we love to ball

Don't want no problem with you homie I mean none at all (not at all)

And to my rich cats with them big faced bills in the air

My po' cats sell more sex to you

Love green millionaires

Been all around the world

Turned the squares into true players

Cheap watches turned to Cartiers

Locals turned to gators

Point 3's turn to 5 c's all these car keys

Jump in the Benz and hit The Shark Bar

You know they love to see a hot star

And for my dogs I ain't seen in awhile

I still got love for y'all ain't got a chance to return your call

I'm in Chicago

I'm getting paid man bigger figgas everywhere that I go

I'm still hearing about drama poppin' in the hood

Heard everybody doing good and I like that

Irv said y'all got the block locked

He tell me K and big Chris driving drop tops

Flossing I'm getting letters hard to write back

Put a fly picture in the mail hope they like that

Prayin' that the fame don't kill us all

The magazines to the big screens

He ain't easy as the shit seems

Throwin' up my deuces as a pass by

Showing love to the southside all the players outside

And we gon' spend G's tonight

Hotel's on me shit's free tonight

C'mon!

7. Lil Bow Wow (feat. Xscape) -- Bounce With Me (August 19, 2000; 9 September, 2000)

(Bounce, bounce)

See around here

(Uh-huh, uh, huh-uh)

I make things that make y'all bounce

Ya know?

Heh, ya know what I mean?

(Yeah, yeah)

Left to right, right to left

(Uh-huh, uh-huh)

It's So So Def

(Yeah uh)

And uh it's going down

Ya know what I mean?

(Yeah)

My man Bow Wow

Yeah ya heard?

Let's go! Let's go! Let's go!

Around here we pop them collars

Around here we get them dollars

Every girl I see that look right

A nigga like me just gotta holla

This kid here all about stackin' up

Got big head but we can back it up

Long cause everybody get crunk

When we drop in the club starts acting up

I represent the S-O-S-O, D-E-F-M-O-B

That's me, JD, Brat, and JE

So please believe

What I do ain't never been done

Ohio is where I'm from

I heard what you said

And I saw what you do

And y'all playas really don't want none

From the day to the night, I ROCK

Say what you like, NEVER NOT

Stayin' alive, living the life

Gots to keep it hot

Shotgun in the drop, riding good

Twenties, TVs, leather and wood

Poppin', watching Big Momma

Holdin' it down like a playa should

Sing-a-long now!

All I wanna do is see ya

Bounce with me, bounce with me

Grab a partner hit the floor

Some clap, clap others stomp

But around here we get it crunk when ya

It's the B to the O-W

Wow even your girl fall in love

When I smile

The tight little guy you ain't seen in a while

Ignore the hype, just right for you size

I get in where I fit in

Braided up, made the bucks

And I'm still a kid

Imagine what life like when I get big