British dialects

General notions of british dialects. The classification of british dialects according to their location. Midlands english: east and west midlands, east Anglia. Southern, scottish english, wenglish, hiberno-english. Divergences from rules of pronunciation.

Рубрика Иностранные языки и языкознание
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The most notable feature of the consonants occurs in the sounds in the middle of words like "bottle". In Geordie, the t sound is not replaced completely. Rather, it is half replaced so that there's a glottal stop and the t pronounced at the same time. There may also be a "v" sound inserted in some sequences, such as give it tiv us - 'give it to me' (дай это мне) or A sez tiv im - 'I said to him' - Я сказал ему.

It is the vowel sounds that really give Geordie speech its distinctive character. On the end of words "er" becomes "a" ("father" is pronounced "fatha", both "a" sounds as [ж]). Many [a] sounds become more like [e]: "hev" for "have". Double vowels are often pronounced separately: "boat" becomes "boh-ut". Some words acquire extra vowels ("growel" for "growl", "cannet" for "can't"). The "or" sound in words like "talk" becomes "aa", while "er" sounds in words like "work" becomes "or". The "oo" in words like "cook", "book" or "look" becomes "uu". Like other northern dialects, the u vowels tend to be short, so that the vowel sounds in the words 'foot' and 'bus' are the same. Final vowels are usually given rather greater stress than in Standard English, so that words like "fighter" and "mother" sound like "faita" and "mutha". Some vowels involve the combination of two different vowels, such as those in "eight" and "throat" which sound more like "ee-ut" and "throw-ut". These are the real shibboleths of Geordie speakers. There are some more extreme variants too, for example, 'take' may be pronounced tek and 'face' fyes. The vowel in 'town' is typically pronounced toon. Fanatical followers of Newcastle United Football Club are well known as the Toon Army. Similarly, 'brown', 'about', 'pound' and so on are pronounced broon, aboot and poond.

The position of the vowels as in the Standard English "shore" and "bird" is rather more complex. There are two separate Geordie vowels equivalent to the "shore" vowel in Standard English. Words spelled with an "l" such as "walk" are pronounced with a distinctive lengthened a sound usually written "waak" in dialect writing. Those without "l" such as "board" are roughly the same as Standard English. The standard "bird" vowel is usually rendered as the sound in "chalk", so that "heard" becomes indistinguishable from "hoard" and "bird" from "board". This sound confusion is the basis for a well-known Geordie joke:

Workman visiting doctor: Me leg's bad, man, can ye give us a sick note?

Doctor: Can you walk?

Workman: Work? Y'a kiddin' man, A cannet even waak!

Also in Geordie, 'blow' becomes blaa and 'cold' cowld, but in other words such as 'flow' and 'slow' the vowels are not changed in the same way.

A number of words are said to have pronunciation indicating a possible survival from earlier periods of English, such as gan 'go', lang 'long' (длинный), aks 'ask' (просить/спрашивать) and deed 'died' (умерший). The word 'can't' is usually pronounced cannet.

Intonation patterns in Geordie are quite distinctive, with a rising intonation at the end of declarative sentences (statements), but the issue is complex and no definitive studies have been done.

Yorkshire

Yorkshire is still England's biggest county. Once it was the heart of the Danelaw, the Viking kingdom in Britain. To this day, the lexicon of dialect speakers in the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire retains many words that derive from Old Norse. Scandinavian influence on the language does not stop with the end of the Danelaw, however: in the 19th and 20th centuries maritime trade and commerce in the North Sea and the Baltic brought many Danes, Norwegians and Swedes to ports like Hull and Newcastle. The West Riding also has a large corpus of words of Old Norse origin. The Norwegian influence is stronger here, whereas Danish is more influential in the East Riding - there are more "Norwegian" forms than the "Danish" of, say, the East Riding. There is a historical explanation in the trade routes from Dublin, via the north-west coast of England, over the Pennine uplands to York, capital of the Danelaw. We see an illustration of this in the place-name ending -thwaite, of Norwegian origin, which is common in West Yorkshire, Lancashire and the Lake District, but rare east of the Pennines, where the Danish cognate -thorpe is far more common.

Vocabulary.

Trudgill Trudgill, P. (1990) The dialects of England, Oxford: Blackwell. remarks on the prodigious variation in vocabulary arising from both the historical settlement patterns of the various European invaders and the later linguistic changes following settlement.

The examples below are from the lexicon of Yorkshire dialect speakers.

Nouns

Attercop: spider - паук (Old English "poisonous spider")

Backend: autumn - осень

Bairn: child - ребёнок (Also used in Scotland and Northumberland)

Blaeberry: bilberry - черника

Blain/blen: sore/swelling/boil - рана/опухоль/нарыв (Old English)

Dale: valley - долина, лощина

Foss, force: waterfalls, rapids - водопады, пороги реки

Goodies/spice: sweets - конфеты, сладости

Gowk: cuckoo - кукушка

Kelter/kelterment: junk/rubbish/litter - мусор/хлам

Kittling: kitten - котёнок

Lug/tab: ear - ухо

Nowt: nothing - ничего (Rhymes with "stout" or "coat". Literally "Naught")

Owt: anything -что-нибудь (Rhymes with "stout" or "coat". Literally "Aught")

Urchin: hedgehog - ёж (this sense is preserved in sea-urchin).

Varmint: vermin - паразиты (насекомые)/вредители (Old form surviving in America and Yorkshire)

Yam: home -дом (Compare modern Norwegian hjem, sounded as "yem".)

Yat: gate - ворота

Yatstead: threshold - порог

Yoon: oven - печь

Pronouns

Nay: no - нет

Verbs

Addle: to earn - зарабатывать (From Old English via Old Norse)

Ban: to curse, to swear - богохульствовать

Dee: to die - умереть

Lap: to cover/wrap up - накрываться/кутаться

Laik/lark: to play/laze - играть/бездельничать (Old Norse)

Mash: to brew, as in tea or beer - заваривать чай/варить пиво

Putten: past tense of the verb to put - клал

Puther: to make clouds of smoke or dust - дымить/пылить

Rick, reek:smoke, to smoke -дым, курение/курить

Sile: to rain heavily - лить как из ведра

Skell: To tip or spill - опрокидывать/рассыпать/расплескивать (Old Norse)

Thoil/thole: to tolerate/put up with/stand/bear - терпеть/мириться/выносить/выдерживать (Old English)

Adjectives

Backendish: autumnal - осенний

Blake: sallow, yellow - болезненный, землистый, жёлтый (usually in relation to someone's complexion)

Cat Hawed: drunk - пьяный (pronounced "cattored")

Gloppened, glottened: astonished, surprised, flabbergasted - изумлённый, удивлённый, поражённый

Mafted: very hot or breathless - очень жаркий, безветренный

Nesh: weak, feeble - слабый, немощный, хилый (Old English)

Nithered: (past participle) cold/shivering - холодный/дрожащий (Old Norse)

Slape: slippery - скользкий

Wick: lively - активный, энергичный (Relates to quick, originally meaning "alive")

Forms like mafted and nithered come from verbs that have passed out of use.

Adverb

Appen: perhaps - возможно, наверное (like Shakespeare's haply)

Some words in Yorkshire dialect at first sight seem to be Standard English but, as Kellett Kellett, A. (1992) Basic Broad Yorkshire, Revised Edition, Otley: Smith Settle. points out, "they do not mean what they appear to mean". He gives the following examples:

Flags - not banners to be waved, but paving stones - не развивающиеся знамёна, а булыжники

Gang - not a group of people, but the verb `to go' - не группа людей, а глагол "идти"

Real - a description of something good or outstanding, not genuine - описание чего-то значительного или выдающегося, а не реального

Starved - relating to feeling cold rather than a state of hunger - ощущение холода, а не голода

Sharp - used in the sense of `quickly' rather than having a point or edge - быстро, но никак не связанное с острием или лезвием

Right - employed not only to indicate direction but as an intensifier in the sense of `very' - используется не только для указания направления, но и усиление значения слова "очень"

Yorkshire dialect is rich in idiomatic expressions. The following examples are taken from Kellett:

Allus at t' last push up - always at the last moment - Всегда в последний момент

Nobbut a mention - just a small amount - Всего лишь малое количество

It's nut jannock - it's not fair - Это не честно

'e wor 'ard on - he was fast asleep - Он спал крепким сном

Livin' tally / ower t' brush - living together as man and wife but not married - Жить вместе в гражданском браке

Tek a good likeness - be very photogenic - Быть очень фотогеничным

It caps owt - it beats everything - Это ни с чем не сравнить

Goin' dahn t' nick - ill and not going to get better - Безнадёжно больной

A reight gooid sooart - a really kind person - Очень добрый/добряк

Ah wor fair starved - I really was cold - Я действительно замёрз

Grammar.

All the following examples of Yorkshire dialect grammar are taken from Arnold Kellett's "Basic Broad Yorkshire" Kellett, A. (1992) Basic Broad Yorkshire, Revised Edition, Otley: Smith Settle.. The text below contains only a small example of basic grammar and it does not include all the varieties of form and construction.

Verbs

Present tense

The following examples show verb formation together with examples of personal pronouns.

to laik (play)

Ah/Aw (I) laik Wer/wi (We) laik

Tha/Thoo (You) laiks Yer/Yo(u) (You) laik

'e (He) laiks Thet/ther/the' (They) laik

Shoo/sher/sh' (She) laiks

Future tense

Indicated by `bahn' or `off ti'. For example:

Ah'm bahn ter side them pots 'e's off ti shut t' yat

I'm going to put those dishes away He's going to shut the gate

Я собираюсь убрать эту посуду Он собирается закрыть ворота

Past Tense

Some of the participles used in the formation of the past tense are a retention of earlier forms of English:

gat/getten Got frozen frozen

fahned/fan/fun Found putten put

Negatives

`Nut' and `nooan' are the equivalents of `not' Yorkshire speech:

Thoo'll nut finnd owt Ah'm nooan bahn yonder

You'll not find anything I'm not going there

Вы ничиго не найдёте Я не иду туда

Double negatives are quite common in dialect:

'e nivver said nowt neeaways ti neean on 'em

He never said anything at all to anybody

Он никогда никому ничего не говорил

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns do not differ greatly from those of Standard English:

mi/ma my mine/mahne mine

thi/thy yourthine yours

'is his 'is his

'er her 'ers hers

wer/ahr our ahrs ours

oor our oors ours

yer youryours yours

the'r theirtheirs theirs

Plurals

Plural forms are not normally used when referring to periods of time or to quantities:

six pund two week owd

six pounds two weeks old

шесть фунтов двухнедельной давности

Plurals of some nouns exist in their older form. For example:

childerchildren (дети) hosen stockings (чулки)

spice sweets (конфеты) shoon/shooin shoes (ботинки)

Prepositions

Some prepositions differ very much from those of Standard English:

aboonabove (выше, ранее) behunt/behint behind (сзади, позади)

afooarbefore (вначале, прежде) fra/frev from (от, из)

baht without (без) ter/tul/tiv to (к, на)

Demonstrative Adjectives

When used in dialect the demonstratives (that, this) are normally accompanied by `theeare' (there) or 'ere (here):

that theeare pig this 'ere cannle

that pig this candle

Phonetics.

Trudgill Trudgill, P. (1990) The dialects of England, Oxford: Blackwell. considers that one of the most important features of this dialect is the fact that such words as long, wrong, strong, etc are pronounced with a short <a> instead of an <o>, (i.e. Lang, wrang, strang, etc.) and that find, blind, etc. are realized with a short <i> (finnd, blinnd, etc.). Such pronunciations, he says, link back to the original Anglo-Saxon realizations. Similarly, the employment of a monophthong (i.e. a pure vowel) by Northern speakers in such words as house, out, and cow (i.e. hoos, oot and coo) is the retention of the original medieval pronunciation.

Trudgill further observes that, in some areas of the North, a modified version of the Anglo-Saxon long <a> is preserved in such words as home and stone, their pronunciations being

hee-am and stee-an. Likewise, spoon, fool, etc. are realized as spee-oon, fee-ool, and so on.

Other important features of Yorkshire dialect are: -ing which is pronounced as -in'

(e.g. walkin', talkin', etc.); the use of the short <a> (as in cat) in words like bath and dance; and the dropping of word-initial <h> (e.g. 'appy, 'orrible, etc.).

Kellett remarks that the er sound is modified so that thirst, for example, becomes thust or thost.

Diphthongs

aa thus naame (roughly nay-em) for name

ooa (roughly oo-er) so that words such as floor, door and afore become flooar, dooar and

afooar

ow as in browt, owt and nowt (i.e. brought, anything and nothing). The realization of this

sound is not equivalent to the Standard English pronunciation of now but more like aw-oo oi used in such words as coit, throit and 'oil (i.e. coat, throat and hole)

eea appears in words like again, death and street (pronounced ageean, deeath and streeat)

Scouse

Scouse is the dialect of English found in the northern English city of Liverpool and adjoining urban areas of Lancashire and the Wirral region of Cheshire. "The Beatles" made this dialect famous. The adopted Merseysider and language expert Fritz Spiegl once described the Liverpool dialect as "one-third Irish, one-third Welsh and one-third catarrh".

The dialect of Merseyside is highly distinctive, and wholly different from those of neighbouring regions of Lancashire and Cheshire. The word Scouse was originally a variation of lobscouse -the name of a traditional dish of mutton stew mixed with hardtack eaten by sailors.

The influence of immigrants from Ireland, Wales, the Isle of Man, Scotland, other parts of northern England, and the Caribbean in the XVIII and XIX centuries was very strong.

The characteristic features of Scouse are:

A fast, highly inflected manner of speech, with a range of rising and falling tones not typical of most of northern England.

The final letters of many words are often lost in a glottal stop: 'get' becomes gerr

The tongue tends to be swallowed, cutting off nasal passages and making it sound as if the speaker has a cold.

Irish influences include the pronunciation of the letter 'h' as 'haitch' and the plural of 'you' as 'yous'. The pronunciation of 'th' as 'd' ('there' becomes dere), and the 'ere' sound in 'there' as 'urr', are encountered in Northern Ireland. The dropping of the 'g' sound at the end of 'ing', hence 'doing' becomes 'doin' is also commonplace in Dublin. There are also idioms shared with Hiberno-English, such as "I know where you're at" ("I know who you are").

Welsh influences include the distinctive rolling 'ck' sound, pronounced as in the Scots 'loch'. The letter 'r' is rolled, similar to Scots.

Expressions include 'la' that is equal to lad - друг, приятель, товарищ, e.g. "Yer arright den, la'?" ("You all right then, lad?"). The interjection 'eh!' is equivalent to 'hey!' or 'oi!' in other parts of the UK.

There are a few features of southern dialects, e.g. using a "f" or "v" sound instead of "th", as in "bruvver" - brother and "baf" - "bath".

The vocabulary of this dialect is quite numerous and differs from others, e.g.

Baird - girlfriend, wife - подружка, жена

Boss - excellent - отличный, превосходный

Blower - telephone - телефон

Burr'I . - But I… - Но я ....

To buzz - to ring - позвонить ("Give us a buzz" - Ring me)

Carzy/crapper/bog - toilet - туалет, уборная

Char - tea - чай

Cop shop - police station - полицейское управление

Do - party - вечеринка

Gunnite - good night -спокойной ночи

Last - awful - ужасный

Moby - mobile phone - мобильный телефон

Nimps - easy - легко

Pezzie - gift, present - подарок

Tirraah - Good bye - До свидания

Ullo - Hello - Привет

Yeared? - Have you heard? - Вы слышали?

2.1 Midlands English

Midlands English includes dialects of: Derbyshire, Nottingham, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Black Country, Birmingham, Norfolk, etc.

2.1.1 East Midlands

The East Midlands is famous for its distinctive dialects from the Derbyshire drawl to Nottingham's no-nonsense style of talking. Despite the fading of old traditions and huge shifts in how people communicate globally, it appears that dialects are still going strong in the East Midlands. Much of the dialects developed in rural communities and in the industrial heartlands of the region. Mining communities in Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire were renowned for their use of dialects. At a time when regions are losing some of their traditional dialect, the East Midlands is keen to retain its cultural identity and linguistic style. Although some words are dying out, East Midlanders are keen to celebrate their local language. Here are some phrases of East Midlanders:

It's black uvver Bill's mother's - it looks like rain - это похоже на дождь

Coggie - swimming costume - купальный костюм

Croaker - doctor - врач

Duck's necks - bottle of lemonade - бутылка лимонада

Gorra bag on - in a bad mood - в плохом настроении

Laropped - drunk - пьяный

Nesh - cold - холодный

Old cock - friend, mate - друг, приятель

Skants - pants - брюки, штаны

The rally - the railway line - железнодорожная линия

In Lincolnshire, local people are going back to the classroom to reclaim their linguistic roots. Words like "sneck" (a metal hook - металический крючёк), "blather" (mud on clothing - грязь на одежде), "dowking" (wilting vegetation - увядающая растительность), "wozzle" (root vegetable - корнеплод), "noggin'" (lump of land - ком земли) were dying out, but not now. Some scientists blame tractors and modern farm machines for the demise of the Lincolnshire dialect. When the machines replaced horses, many words and terms associated with the animals became redundant. They also blame the moving population and "frim folk" (people from other areas - люди из других мест) who have come into the county. This has resulted in a mixture of voices and the dilution of the Lincolnshire dialect.

The farmers of Derbyshire are proud of retaining their heritage, and are keen to preserve their local dialect. Here are some features of Derbyshire dialect:

the use of words like "thee" and "thou"

the shortening of words for more economical speech

the use of very unusual words like "scratin'" (crying - плачущий) deriving from old Norse or Viking

Some words and phrases of Derbyshire dialect: ganzi - pullover or sweater - свитер, пуловер; Gerraht! - Get out! - Убирайся!; gone-aht - surprised - удивлённый; namor - no more - больше не, ничего больше; wang - to throw - кидать, бросать;

Some language experts recently declared Leicester the birthplace of modern Standard English. Academics claim that the culturally diverse mix of settlers to the East Midland a thousand years ago helped to shape the future of the English language. Anglo Saxons and Vikings lived side by side, sharing their customs and languages. Today Leicester has one of the most culturally diverse populations in the country, with Asian and Afro-Caribbean influences now filtering through. At the City of Leicester School, the pupils of all backgrounds find themselves using Leicester dialect. Traditional words like my yard (my house - мой дом), chuddie (pants - брюки, штаны), gis a gleg - (give me a look at it - дай посмотреть), ow a ya?- (how are you? - как поживаете?), worro - (hello - привет), wassup? - (What is going on? - Что происходит?), snitch - (tale teller - сказочник), oakey - (an ice-cream - мороженое) are in common usage, together with new expressions like "24/7" (непрерывно, постоянно; двадцать четыре часа в сутки, семь дней в неделю) derived from popular culture. This is then combined with words and expressions picked up from American culture and rap artists such as Eminem.

Nottingham is also renowned for its dialect and foreign nurses at the city's hospitals have trouble grappling with 'Ay up mi duck' (Hello there - Привет) and other expressions like "corshucan" (of course you can - конечно ты можешь). Nottinghamshire has many dialect words heard only within its borders. Many of these words originate from close European neighbours. During mediaeval times, Nottingham was a huge trading centre and merchants from France, Denmark and the Low Countries set up businesses in Nottingham and foreign communities grew around these businesses and some of their language was absorbed into the local dialect. For example: Gizza glegg (May I see that - Можно я взгляну?); from the Danish glegg (to look- смотреть), jitteh (an alleyway, cut-through between houses - переулок, проход между домами) - from the colloquial French 'jetez' (a small step, short cut - кратчайшее расстояние). 'Rammel' - Anglo-Saxon - meaning waste from a building site (строительный мусор) - now used to mean rubbish generally. There are many other examples of foreign words which have been adapted for local use, but one whose origin is unable to find is 'mazzgi,' a dialect word for a domestic cat - домашний кот.

2.1.2 West Midlands

There are two dialects in West Midlands: Black Country dialect and Birmingham dialect. These dialects have much in common with Old English, many features peculiar to Old English remain there.

Black country

The dialect of the Black Country area remains perhaps one of the last examples of early English still spoken today. The region was described as 'Black by day and red by night' by Elihu Burritt, the American Consul to Birmingham in 1862 due to the amount of foundries, lime kilns, collieries that went on there. It's known as the 'Black Country' due to the colour of the ground that is black because of large quantity of coal. One of the most famous features is the 'yam yam' sound when saying certain phrases. 'You are' is pronounced yo'am and 'are you' is pronounced am ya. That's why this dialect if also called Yam Yam. The Black Country dialect has its own vocabulary as well as grammatical differences, and quite a lot of it has similarities with Old English. It still contains words (Thee - you - тебя, Thy - your and Thou - you - ты) widely used by Shakespeare or Chaucer.

Vocabulary.

Nouns

Ackidock -aqueduct -водопровод

Babby - baby - ребёнок, младенец

Beezum - a broom of birch; a pert young woman - берёзовый веник; бойкая девушка

Blether - a bladder - пустомеля

Breffus - breakfast - завтрак

Cag-mag - gossip - сплетня

Chops/ gob - mouth - рот

Clobber - clothes - одежда

Dishle - cup of tea - чашка чая

Dollop - large quantity (usually of food) - большое колличество (обычно применимо к еде)

Donny/'Ond - hand - рука

Fai(r)ther - father - папа

Fittle - food, victuals - еда, провиант

Flics - cinema - кино

Gob - a piece of something - кусок чего-либо

Lezzer - a meadow - луг

Nuss - nurse - няня, медсестра

Ooman - woman - женщина

Opple - apple - яблоко

Owern - my husband, my son, my daughter (often used by women to denote member of family) - мой муж, мой сын, моя дочь (используется женщиной по отношению к членам семьи)

Puss - purse - кошелёк

Suck - sweets - конфеты, сладости

Sussifikut - certificate - сертификат, документ

Tai(tay) - tea - чай

Wench - girl (commonly used by parents towards daughters) - девочка

Wum(Whum) - home - дом

Yed -head - голова

Pronouns

Aither - either - любой

Anny(Onny) - any - какой-нибудь

Ar - our - наш

`e - he - он

`im - him - его

Nairun - none, not one - никто

Naither - neither - ни

Yer - your - ваш

Yow - you - ты, вы

Verbs

Aks(axe) - to ask - спрашивать, просить

Bamfoozle - to puzzle; to bemuse - озадачивать; ошеломлять

Bin(ben) -been, have been, are, have ("I bin" - affirmative reply to question)

Caw(cor) -cannot ("I cor goo the'er terday" - I can't do there yesterday - Я не мог пойти туда вчера)

Coddin - joking ("Goo on, yum coddin me" - Go on, you joking me - Продолжай, ты меня забавляешь)

Coost - could you? - не могли бы вы?, also negative "thee coosnt" - you could't - вы не можете

Cost - can you ? - вы можете?, also negative "I cosn't" - I cannot - я не могу

Day(day) -did not ("I day see 'im comin" - I did not see him coming - Я не видел чтобы он пришёл)

Doe - do not (as in reply to question: "I doe" - I don't - Я не...)

Ivver-ovver - hesitate - колебаться

Ketch - catch - ловить

Mo - must not - не должен, нельзя

Mun - must - должен

Node - known ("I've nowd 'im for 'ears" - I've known him for years - Я знал его в течении многих лет)

Ood/Oot - would you/will you

Soople - to soften, make supple - смягчать

Tek - to take - брать

Tek after - to resemble - походить

Trussen - to trust - доверять

Adjectives

Aud(oud) - old - старый

Chuffed - pleased - довольный

Joobus - suspicious, dubious - подозрительный, вызывающий сомнения

Lickle - little - маленький

Natty - tidy, neat - чистый, опрятный

Noo - new - новый

Adverb

Agen - again - снова

Forby - nearby - вблизи

Terday - yesterday - вчера

Wurse(Wuss) - worse - хуже

Conjunction

Lief - as soon as - как только

Grammar.

The grammar of this dialect is quite different from Standard one. They use 's'- inflexion for the first person singular present simple: I looks, I comes, I misses, etc. For plural form of the noun they have ending -en instead of -s: housen - houses - дома.

Phonetics.

Instead of initial W they usually use OO. In the closed syllable a is pronounced as [o]: apple [opl]. Consonants in the centre of words sometimes are doubled: Tummy - a snack - закуска, Thissen - this one - этот, Kissa - face - лицо, etc. The dropping of the 'g' sound at the end of 'ing' is usual. Vowels are also often changed. When people greet each other they use the phrase 'Yow awight' meaning 'you alright'.

Brummie

Brummie (or Brummy) refers to things connected with the city of Birmingham in England: particularly its people, known as Brummies, and their accent and dialect of the English language. The word is derived from Brummagem (commonly shortened to Brum) which is a local name for the city. A large number of local words and phrases exist derived from the mixture of various cultures and dialects. Brummie should not be regarded as the only dialect of the Midlands or West Midlands, although the term is often used by outsiders to refer to all dialects of the region. For example, speakers from the Black Country have a dialect which is very different from Brummie in many respects. A large number of local words and phrases exist derived from the amalgamation of various cultures and dialects which have combined to produce an unusual but familiar voice. Some claim that 'old' Brummie is the most likely accent that William Shakespeare would have used, at that time Birmingham would have been in Warwickshire. Some words are simple variations of those used elsewhere, such as mom for instead of Standard English `mum', while others are unique to Birmingham.

The older generation sometimes use words like bab when referring to `a spouse' or `female'.

A saying that is not often heard anymore is it's lookin a bit black over bills mothers, this referred to the prospect of rain - так говорится когда надвигается дождь. Keep away from the 'oss road was often said as a warning to children who were thinking of playing on the busy tracks frequented by horses, carts, trams and early cars - так звучало предостережение детям, чтоб они не играли на дороге. Another old phrase that is sometimes used today is o'rite our kid or simply ows it goin kid which is another way of asking how you are - как поживаете?

You got a beak on ya en ya was a term used against someone that was nosey without reason - использовалось по отношению к тому, кто не в меру любопытен. Our nip was another word for `younger brother' - младший брат. You talkin to me or chewin a brick was a confrontational term when you thought someone was being aggressive verbally (it was usually followed up with, Cause' either way you're gonna get your teeth smashed in!') - ответная реакция на чьи-либо грубые слова. He's ded yampee was a term for Scatty - сумасшедший, чокнутый. You ad your eyeful was used to deter someone staring in your direction for too long - используется для того, чтобы отпугнуть (отвязаться от) кого-то кто пристально смотрит на вас. Got a face like a bosted arse was a way of saying someone looked in a bad mood - так говорилось тому, кто был в плохом настроении. Giz a rock meant 'can I have a sweet' (a rock was often used as an alternative to sweet) - можно мне конфетку (леденец)?

Got a face as long as Livery Street that one was a way of saying that someone looked miserable - так говорилось тому, кто выглядел жалким (печальным). The term bostin was sometimes used as an alternative to `brilliant' - бриллиант.

All these examples are still used in Birmingham but not so often as the following, which are more recent:

O'rite - alright - хорошо

Man - mate - товарищ

Sound/sweet/mint' - excellent - прекрасный, превосходный, отличный

Outdoor - off-licence - бар, где разрешена продажа спиртных напитков на вынос

Have a doss - laze about - лентяйничать, бездельничать

Fair play - well done - отлично сработано, хорошо

Buzz - bus - автобус

Def it out! - Leave it alone! - Оставь в покое!

Soz - 'Sorry' - Извините

Also, many younger Brummies have adopted the Caribbean pronunciations of 'this' and 'that' - 'dis' and 'dat'.

Phonetics.

In such combination as "al+consonant" letter `l' usually is not pronounced and `a' sounds as [o:].

2.1.3 East Anglia

East Anglia is a region of eastern England, named after one of the ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Its boundaries are not rigidly defined, but it includes the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, with part or all of Cambridgeshire and Essex, and a small part of southern Lincolnshire bordering The Wash. East Anglia has its own dialect - Norfolk, perhaps because of the fact that the impact of Scandinavian tribes, Teutonic tribes and other early European cultures, was greater upon East Anglia than upon the rest of England. There are aspects of the dialect that still reflect the influence of early, dominant European languages.

Norfolk

The Norfolk dialect, also known as Broad Norfolk, is a dialect that was once spoken by those living in the county of Norfolk in England. Much of the distinctive vocabulary of Broad Norfolk has now died out and only the older generations use the fullest amount, so the speech of most of Norfolk is now more an accent than a dialect. There have been attempts to revive the Norfolk dialect. The Friends of Norfolk Dialect (FOND) is a group which formed in 1999 with the aim of preserving and promoting Broad Norfolk. The group campaigns for the recognition of Norfolk as a dialect, and for the teaching of "Norfolk" in schools.

Vocabulary.

Afront - in front - впереди

Ahind - behind - позади

Atwin - between - между

Bishy barney bee - ladybird - божья коровка

Bor - neighbour/boy - сосед/мальчик

Dickey - donkey - осёл

Dodman - snail - улитка

Dudder - to shiver - дрожать

Gret - great, big, or significant - большой, значительный

Harnser - heron - цапля

Hold yew hard! - Hang on a moment! - Подождите минутку!

Loke - lane, alley - тропинка, аллея

Lummox - clumsy or ungainly person - неловкий, неповоротливый человек

Mavish - thrush - дрозд

Mawkin - scarecrow - пугало, чучело

Mawther - girl/young woman - девочка/ девушка

Old year's nyte -New Year's Eve - канун Нового Года

Rum - curious, strange, funny - любопытный, странный, смешной

Titty - totty - very small - очень маленький

Warmint - varmint or vermin, troublesome person - преступник, шалопай

Zackley - exactly - именно

Many words beginning with V take a W start in Norfolk - warmint and willage among them. There are also examples of the letter being changed in the middle of the word i.e. aggravating becomes aggraweartin (раздражающий, ухудшающий).

Do is characteristically used in the sense of "otherwise" ("Don't you take yours off, do you'll get rheumatism") and time is used to mean "while" ("Go you and have a good wash time I git tea ready").

Phonetics.

Norfolk is popularised as a yod-dropping dialect where /ju:-/ is pronounced /u:-/ . Other features of Norfolk are that "here" and "hair" (and "hare") are homophones while "daze" /de:z/ and "days" /dжiz/, "nose" /nu:z/ and "knows" /nдuz/ are not.

In such combination as a+nd vowel is pronounced as [o:], e.g. candle [ko:ndl], land [lo:nd].

The initial "h" is dropped from the beginning of words.

2.2 Southern English

Such dialects as: Estuary English, Cockney, Somerset, Devon, Cornwall, etc. represent a group of Southern English.

Estuary english

"Estuary English" is a term coined in 1984 by British linguist, David Rosewarne Rosewarne, David, 1984 Estuary English. Times Educational Supplement, 19 (October 1984).. It is widely spoken in and around London and, more generally, in the southeast of England and along the river Thames and its estuary. Most people consider EE to be a variant (accent) of Standard English that is rapidly spreading in England. Crystal Crystal, David 1995 The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1995: 327) argues, "the variety is distinctive as a dialect not just as an accent" because apart from pronunciation, what distinguishes EE speakers from others are grammatical and lexical features (an essential condition for a variety to be called a dialect). David Britain Britain, David 2003b Dialectology. (2003b) calls Estuary English "a relatively new regional dialect of the south-east of England" because of its geographical distribution.

The Sunday Times, one of Britain's most famous newspapers, has described it as a dialect existing between "Cockney and the Queen" and the Tory (Conservative) Minister of Education condemned it as a "bastardized version of Cockney dialect".

Estuary English, as the advanced speech of the young, has been characterised by the older generation as slovenly and debased.

Vocabulary.

Rosewarne sees certain lexical changes within EE pronunciation. Cheers is often used in place of "thank you" (спасибо), but it's also possible for it to mean "good-bye" (до свидания). The word basically is used frequently in conversation. An increased use of Americanisms can also be seen in EE and evidenced by such examples: There you go being used in place of the more standard "Here you are" (продолжим, поехали, вот, пожалуйста) and There is acts as an invariable form of usage in both singular and plural contexts. In addition, "sorry" (извините) is often replaced with excuse me and engaged, in the context of the telephone it has been replaced by the word busy.

Grammar.

Certain negative forms, such as never referring to a single occasion (I never did, No I never). Less likely is the use of the double negative, which is still widely perceived as uneducated.

The omission of the -ly adverbial ending, as in You're turning it too slow or They talked very quiet for a while.

Certain prepositional uses, such as I got off of the bench or I looked out the window.

Generalization of the third person singular form (I gets out of the car), especially in narrative style; also the generalized past tense use of was, as in We was walking down the road.

Some of these developments are now increasingly to be heard in the public domain, such as on the more popular channels of the BBC, and some have even begun to penetrate into the British Establishment. Glottalization, for example, will be heard on both sides of the House of Commons, and has been observed in the younger members of the royal family.

Phonetics.

L-vocalization, pronouncing the l-sound in certain positions almost like [w], so that "milk bottle" becomes 'miwk bottoo', and "football" becomes 'foo'baw'.

[j]-yod-dropping even before a stressed /u:/ (Chooseday - Tuesday)

Glottalling, using a glottal stop [?] instead of a t-sound in certain positions, as in take it off , quite nice . This is not the same as omitting the t-sound altogether, since "plate" [plei?] still sounds different from "play" [plei]. Nevertheless, authors who want to show a non-standard pronunciation by manipulating the spelling tend to write it with an apostrophe: take i' off, qui'e nice. The positions in which this happens are most typically syllable-final -- at the end of a word or before another consonant sound. London's second airport, Gatwick, is very commonly called "Ga'wick".

HappY-tensing, using a sound more similar to the [i:] than to the [i] at the end of words like happy, coffee, valley. In strong syllables (stressed, or potentially stressed) it is crucial to distinguish [i:] from [i], since "green" must be distinct from "grin" and "sleep" from "slip". But in weak syllables this distinction does not apply - the precise quality of the final vowel in "happy" is not so important.

H-coalescence, using [t?] (a ch-sound) rather than [tj] in words like "Tuesday", "tune", "attitude". This makes the first part of "Tuesday" sound identical to "choose", [tSu:z]. The same happens with the corresponding voiced sounds: the RP [dj] of words such as "duke", "reduce" becomes Estuary [d?], making the second part of reduce identical to "juice" [d?u:s]. At the beginning of words h isn't replaced, it's simply dropped ('and on - hand on, 'eart - heart)

Th-fronting (think [fi?k], mother [mv?]).

'Vowel fronting' means producing some vowels and diphthongs differently to RP, which can lead to homophones like: way = why , say = sigh, pulls - pools.

Sounding the diphthong vowel sounds of words like "I" as [??], the diphthong in words like "brown" as [ж?], and the diphthong in words like "face" as [??].

Cockney

One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of London. A Cockney, in the loosest sense of the word, is a working-class inhabitant of the East End of London. According to one old tradition, the definition is limited to those born within earshot (generally taken to be three miles) of the Bow bells, i.e. the bells of St Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside. Cockney is also an old rhyming slang dialect, which originated from the East end of London. According to the Oxford English Dictionary the first use of the word in its accepted meaning was in 1521, by a writer Whittington. Cockney speakers have a distinctive accent and dialect, and frequently use Cockney rhyming slang.

Although no one speaks fluent Cockney any more, residents in this area of London still use a lot of words. But many Cockney words have slipped into the English language and are used in everyday speech all over England. The etymology of “Cockney” has long been discussed and disputed. One explanation is that “Cockney” literally means cock's egg, a misshapen egg such as sometimes laid by young hens. During the 1700's the term, used by country folk, was applied to town's folk who were considered ignorant of the established customs and country ways. This term in due course became synonymous with working class Londoners themselves and has now lost its once denigrating qualities. Despite the current definition of a Cockney, to most outsiders a Cockney is anyone from London itself. Natives of London, especially in its East End use the term with respect and pride.

Cockney is lively and witty and its vocabulary - imaginative and colourful. Its specific feature not occurring anywhere else is the so-called rhyming slang, in which some words are substituted by other words rhyming with them. Boots, for instance, are called daisy roots.

Vocabulary.

Adam and Eve - to believe - верить

Almonds - socks - носки

Apples and pears - stairs - лестница

Barnet fair - hair - волосы

Bees and Honey - money - деньги

Bird - prison - тюрьма (from bird lime = time)

Boat race - face - лицо

China - mate/friend - товарищ/друг (from China plate = mate)

Dickie bird - word - слово

Dog and bone - phone - телефон

Dustbin lids - kids/children - дети

Elbows and knees - trees - деревья

Elephant's trunk - drunk - пьяный

Jam jar - car - машина

Loaf of bread - head - голова

Mince pies - eyes - глаза

North and south - mouth - рот

Pig's ear - beer - пиво

Plates - feet - ноги (from plates of meat = feet)

Pride and Joy - boy - мальчик

Rabbit and pork - to talk - говорить

Rosie Lea - tea - чай

Skin and blister - sister- сетра

Trouble - wife - жена (from trouble and strife = wife)

Imagine a conversation like:

"Got to my mickey, found me way up the apples, put on me whistle and the bloody dog went. It was me trouble telling me to fetch the teapots."

which really means,

"Got to my house (mickey mouse), found my way up the stairs (apples and pears), put on my suit (whistle and flute) when the phone (dog and bone) rang. It was my wife (trouble and strife) telling me to get the kids (teapot lids)." - "Я добрался до дома, поднялся по лестнице, одел костюм, когда зазвонил телефон. Это была моя жена. Она сказала чтоб я забрал детей".

Grammar.

The grammar of Cockney is almost unchanged.

Use of ain't instead of "isn't" or "am not".

Use of multiple negation, e.g. I ain't never done nothing

Another form of reflexive pronouns, e.g. 'E'll 'urt 'isself or That's yourn.

Use of adverbs without -ly, e.g. Trains are running normal.

The possessive pronoun my is changed to me, e.g. Where's me bag?

Phonetics.

The Cockney dialect involves very little lip movement. Some features:

The pronunciation of the letter `t' as `d' (the /р?/ becomes /d?/).

The pronunciation of the letter `l' as `w' (all /?:l/ becomes /?:w/).

The omission of the letter `h' (his /hiz/ becomes /iz/, house becomes /aus/).

Diphthongs change, sometimes dramatically: time /toim/, brave /braiv/.

there are also an amazing number of glottal stops and swallowed syllables in the dialect, e.g. Wa'erloo - Waterloo, Ci'y - City, A li'le bi' of breab wiv a bi' of bu'er on i' - A little bit of bread with a bit of butter on it, Sco'land - Scotland, sta'emen - statement, ne'work - network.

Another very well known characteristic of Cockney is th-fronting, e.g. fin - thin, bruvver - brother, free - three, barf - bath.

Vowel lowering, e.g. dinna - dinner, marra - marrow.

Very often letter `a' is pronounced as [] (cat /kt/, apple /pl/).

The inflexion -ing is pronounced as [in] or [n] rather than [?].

Cornwall

The dialect of Cornwall is named Cornish. This dialect differs very much from the other British dialects.

The Cornish dialect is usually spoken, not written, and the spellings in the following vocabulary are the pronunciations.

Vocabulary.

Alantide - AII Saints Day - День всех святых

Allish - pale - бледный

All-on-a-nupshot - in a great hurry - наспех

Ampassy - etcetera - и так далее

Arry - any - любой

Avise/advise - good - хороший

Bamfer - to worry - беспокоиться

Barning - phosphorescent ("The sea is barring"- море светится) - фосфоресцирующий, светящийся

Bearn - a child - ребёнок

Bender - very large - очень большой

Betwix - between - между

Biskey - a biscuit - печенье

Brush - a nosegay - букетик цветов

Bucca/buckaboo - a ghost/hobgoblin/scarecrow - привидение/домовой/пугало

Buddy - friend - друг

Bye - lonely - одинокий

Carrots - nickname for red-haired person - рыжеволосый

Cats and dogs - the catkins of the willow - серёжки ивы

Centry - church or glebe - церковь или приходская земля

Chets - kittens - котята

Criss-cross/row - the alphabet - алфавит

Dido - a noise; row or fuss - шум; гул или суматоха

Ear - year - год

Fower - four - четыре

Fuzzy-pig - the hedgehog - ёжик

Game - go on - продолжать

Giglet/giglot - a giddy girl - легкомысленная девочка

Hilla - nightmare - кошмар

Horse-adder - the dragonfly - стрекоза

Mate - meat - мясо

Night t'ee - goodnight to you - Спокойной тебе ночи

Riders - circus - цирк

Tantarabobus - the devil - дьявол

Tie - bed - кровать

Tribe - family - семья

Yet - gate - ворота

Grammar.

Study reveals that Cornish dialect not only has a sound system far removed from Modern English, but also has its own grammar. Flexible word order gives a range of meaning and subtleties that can be difficult to comprehend. Dialect eez sum maezd and sum maezd ee ez both translate as `he is very perplexed' (он очень растерян) but the first emphasises the person while the latter emphasises his state. A preposition combines with a personal pronoun to give a separate word form. For example, gans (with, by) + my (me) -> genef; gans + ef (him) -> ganso.

In Cornish there is no indefinite article: Cath means "a cat" (there is, however a definite article: an gath means "the cat").

Phonetics.

Cornish Dialect has a vowel system similar to Old English:

aa - this sound does not exist in English, as in Cornish tan `fire', e.g. aant `aunt'.

a - as in English pan, e.g. pezak `rotten' (гнилой) and stank `stamp'.

ae - this sound does not exist in English, as in Cornish men `stone', e.g. aeven `throwing'

e - as in English pen, e.g. fesh `fish' and glaazen `staring' (пристальный).

i - as in English pin, e.g. dipa `small pit' (маленькая яма) and pindee `gone off'.

ee - as in English preen, e.g. morgee `dogfish' (акула) and geek `a peek' (взгляд украткой).

oa - this sound does not exist in English, as in Cornish mos `to go', e.g. troaz `noise' and noa `no'.

o - as in English upon, e.g. porvan `wick' (фитиль).

u - as in English pun, e.g. durns `door frame' and un `him, it'.

oo - as in English poo, e.g. gook `bonnet' (шляпка) and fooch `a pretence' (хвастовство).

3. SCOTTISH ENGLISH

Scots dialect is the speech of those who live in the northern part of the island of Britain, more-or-less defined as north of Hadrian's Wall. The Scottish has a special linguistic status as compared with dialects because of the literature composed in it. The name of Robert Burns, the great national poet of Scotland, is known all over the world. A few line from R.Burns's poem dedicated to his friend James Smith will illustrate the general character of Scottish:

To James Smith

Dear Smith, the slee'st, pawkie thief,

That e'er attempted stealth or rief !

Ye surely hae some warlock-brief

Owre human hearts;

For ne'er a bosom yet was prief

Against your arts.

For me, I swear by sun an' moon,

An' ev'ry star that blinks aboon ,

Ye've cost me twenty pair o' shoon ,

Just gaun to see you;

An' ev'ry ither pair that's done,

Mair taen I'm wi' you…

Here slee'st means `slyest' - лукавый; pawkie - cunning, sly - ловкий; e'er - ever - когда-либо; or - ere, before - прежде; rief - robbery, plunder - кража, воровство; hae - have - иметь; warlock-brief - wizard's contract (with the devil) - дьявольский договор; owre - over - над; prief - proof - недоступный; an' - and - и; blinks - looks smiling - выглядит улыбающимся; aboon - above - на небе, в небесах; o' - of ; shoon - shoes - обувь; gaun - going - собираться; ither - other - другой; mair - more - больше; taen - taken - взятый; wi' - with - с.

Vocabulary.

Aye -yes да

Bonnie - good, nice, beautiful - хороший, красивый

Dee - do

Down South - England - Англия

Mannie - a man - человек, мужчина

Messages - the shoppings (usually food) - покупки (еды)

Mind - remember - помнить, вспоминать

Pinkie - little finger - мизинец

Poppy - money - деньги

Wee - small - маленький

Wind-ee/wind-ay - window - окно

Grammar.

Scots tend to say "nae" for "not." So, instead of the word "cannot" the Scots would say "cannae". Similarly, "do not" becomes "dinnae" and so forth.

Instead of the word "understand" Scots use the word "ken". This word is also occasionally used to substitute for "know" as in "I dinnae ken where the fellow be".

Where an Englishman might say "lad" or "lass" a Scot will use the diminutive "laddie" or "lassie". A Scot might use these terms for adults, as well.

Scots will also use "ye" instead of "you".

Scots will use the word "wee" for "little" or "small".

Phonetics.

The realisation [x] for "ch" in loch, patriarch, technical, etc.

In `length' and 'strength' [n] not [?].

Wednesday is pronounced /w?dnzde/.

The following may occur in colloquial speech, usually among the young, especially males.

The use of glottal stops for [t] between vowels or word final after a vowel, as in butter /b????/ and cat /ka?/.

The realisation of the nasal velar in "-ing" as a nasal alveolar "in'", as in talking /t?:kin/.

They usually distinguishes between [?ur] and [?u?r], in flour and flower.

The 'r' is normally rolled at the front of the mouth so 'car' is pronounced as carrrr.

Some words are shortened, losing bits that slow their roll off the tongue, so 'awfully' becomes offy and 'cannot' becomes canny.

4. WENGLISH

Welsh English or Wenglish is the dialect of English spoken in Wales by Welsh people. The dialect is significantly modified by Welsh grammar and contains a number of unique words.

Vocabulary.

Aim - to throw - бросать

`Ambarg - handbag - сумочка

Aye - eye - глаз

Bar - except - кроме, за исключением

Belfago - loudly - громко

Blacklead - pencil - карандаш

Carn - can't

Credit - to believe - верить

Easy - certainly - конечно, естественно

Feeling - sympathetic - симпатичный

Flag - an unreliable person - ненадёжный человек

Glad and Sorry - on the "never-never" (glad to have it, sorry to have to pay for it) - в кредит

Grizzle - to complain - жаловаться

In a (like a) winky - very quickly - очень быстро

Losins/loshins - sweets - конфеты

Mamgu/myngu - (usually pronounced /mungee/) grandmother - бабушка

On the trot - consecutively - постоянно, последовательно

Pat - cockroach - таракан

Rainin(g) nasty - raining very heavily - лить как из ведра

Salty - expensive - дорогой

Suck-in - disappointment - разачарование

Taffy - toffee - ириска

Yarn - a good joke - хорошая (удачная) шутка

Phonetics.

Some of the features of Welsh English are

Use of /x/ in loch, Bach, technology etc.

Dropping of h in some varieties, `house' sound like ouse.

Distinction of /w/ and /W/ in `wine' and `whine'.

Distinction of ck and k, i.e. /x/ vs. /k/ in `yack' and `yak'.

Use of the Welsh ll sound /K/ (a voiceless 'l') in Llwyd, llaw etc.

There is no contrast between [] and [?]: rubber [r?b?].

In words like `tune', 'few', 'used' we find [iu] rather than [ju:]: tune [tiun].

When the preceding vowel is short - consonants are doubled:city [sitti:].

5. HIBERNO-ENGLISH

Hiberno-English is the dialect of the English language used in Ireland. It is also called Anglo-Irish or Irish English. The basis for the type of English spoken in Ireland is said to be a mixture of the language of Shakespeare and the Irish of the Gaelic earls. The standard spelling and grammar are the same as British English, but especially in the spoken language, there are some unique characteristics, due to the influence of Irish on pronunciation.


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