Theory English

Affixation is commonly defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems. Affixation includes prefixation, i.e. forming new words with the help of prefixes, and suffixation, i.e. forming new words with the help of suffixes. Affixation, or derivation, has been productive at every period of development of the English language and it has retained its productivity to this day.

Affixes are derivational morphemes added directly to roots or to stems. -. SuffixesSuffixes may be classified proceeding from different criteria. 1) From the etymological point of view suffixes are classified into the same two large groups as words: native and borrowed. Native (or Germanic) suffixes are: -ness, -er, -hood, -dom, -ship, -ful, -less, -ish, -ly, -y, -en, -wards, -th. Borrowed affixes are numerous in the English vocabulary. They are of different origin: 1) Romanic, such as: -tion /-ion, -ment, -ance /-ence, -ее, ess, -ette,-let, -able/-ible, -al, -fy, -age. These were borrowed from Latin and French; 2) Greek, such as: -ist, -ism, -ize, -ite, -ic.

2) According to the part of speech classification suffixes fall into 4 groups:

a) noun-forming suffixes: -age (marriage), -ance/-ence (distance, defence), -ancy/-ency (tendency), -ant/-ent (assistant, student), -dom (wisdom), -er (writer), -ess (actress), -hood (motherhood), -ing (building), -ion/-tion/-sion/-ation (creation, tension, explanation), -ist (novelist),-ment (government), -ness -ship (friendship).b) adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible -al (natural), -ic (public), -ical, -ant/-ent (present), -ary (secondary), -ate/-ete (complete), -ian (Arabian), -ish (childish), -ive (active), -ful (useful), -less (useless), -ly (friendly), -ous/-ious (curious), -some (troublesome - беспокойный), -у (rainy). c)Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (coldly,), -ward(s) (northward), -wise (likewise - подобно).d)Verb-forming suffixes: -ate (articulate), -er (twitter - щебетать), -en (shorten), -(i)fy (vivify - оживлять), -ize (apologize), -ish (furnish), etc.

3) According to the degree of productivity suffixes are commonly classified into living or productive suffixes and dead or unproductive suffixes. Productive suffixes are those which derive new words in Modern English, and unproductive suffixes are those which do not give any new coinages. most productive: (N) -er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist, -once; (A) -y, -ish, -ed, -able, -less; (Adv.) -ly; (V) -ize,

-ate. Non-productive suffixes: (N) -th, -ice, -hood; (A) -ly, -some, -en, -ous, (Adv) -long, (V) -en.4) Distinction should also be made between terminal and non-terminal suffixes. Terminal suffixes take only the final position in a word, e.g. -al, -hood, -ness, -ship, kin, -let, -ling (refusal, brotherhood, , friendship, booklet,). Non-terminal suffixes can be followed by other suffixes. -. Prefixes

1) From the etymological point of view, prefixes can be subdivided into native and foreign prefixes. Native (or Germanic) prefixes are: un-, out-, mis-, over-, under-, up-, with-, be-, fore- (unhappy, outlive, misunderstand,). Foreign prefixes are: a-, anti-, bi-, cis-, со-, counter-, de-, demi-, dis-, ex-, extra-, in-, inter-, mono-, поп-, poly-, post-, pre-, pro-, proto-, re-, retro-, semi-, sub-, super-, sur-, syn-, trans ( antechamber, archangel). Some of them are borrowed from Greek (anti-, pro-, re-, de-) and some from Latin or French (counter-, sub-, ex-, pre-).

Б) Compounding (or composition)

Compounding is the type of word-building in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems which occur in the language as free forms.

Сompounds are characterized by: a) one word or hyphenated spelling; b) one stress; c) semantic integrity; d) structural-syntactic unity.

Compounds may be classified proceeding from different criteria:

a) according to the parts of speech to which they belong;

b) according to the means of composition used to link their IC-s;

c) according to their semantic characteristics.

1. As parts of speech, compound words fall into 6 groups:

nouns (e.g. eyelash, highball, lily-of-the-valley);

pronouns (e.g. everybody, somebody, nobody);

adjectives (e.g. two-fold, heavy-duty, cock-sure, snow-white, heart-breaking);

verbs (e.g. overdo - заходить слишком далеко, underestimate, out-stay, side- step - уступить дорогу);

adverbs (e.g., however, nevertheless, whenever, wherein).

prepositions (e.g. into, onto, unto, upon);

conjunctions (e.g. wherever, whereas, whenever, nevertheless, whereupon).

The classification of compounds according to the means of joining their IC-s together distinguishes between the following structural types:

1) Juxtapositional or neutral compounds whose IC-s are merely placed one after another, e.g.: classroom, heartache, rainbow, absent-minded; TV-set, T-shirt, .This structural type is subdivided into 3 subtypes: a) simple neutral compounds (e.g. heartache, bluebell); b) derivational compounds (e.g. absent-minded, hot-headed); c) contracted compounds (e.g T-shirt).

2) Morphological compounds whose IC-s are joined together with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element, e.g. Anglo-Saxon, Franco-Prussian, statesman, spokesman (представитель, делегат), bridesman, bridesmaid (подружка невесты), sportsman, etc. This type belongs to morphological way of word-building in Modern English.

3) Syntactic compounds which are the result of the process of semantic isolation and structural integration of free word-groups, i.e. these words are formed from segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions, adverbs, etc. E.g.: forget-me-not, lily-of-the-valley, good-for-nothing, pick-me-up, milk-and-water. This type belongs to syntactical way of word-building in English.

It should be mentioned that not all the structural types of compounds are equally productive. The morphological compounds are the least productive while the syntactic compounds are more active and the juxtapositional compounds seem to be most productive of all.

3. From the semantic point of view all compounds fall into two groups of unequal size: idiomatic and non-idiomatic. The meaning of non-idiomatic compounds is easily understood from the meanings of their IC-s, e.g. bedroom, dining-room, bookshelf, raincoat,. Idiomatic compounds are those in which the meaning of the unit cannot be understood from the meaning of its IC-s, chatter-box (болтун), ladybird (божья коровка), lady-killer (сердцеед, ловелас),

B) Shortening

This way of word-building has existed in the English language since the 13-th century and achieved a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English. Shortened words are a considerable quantitative gain and as such are useful and practical. There exist two main ways of shortening: contraction (or clipping) and abbreviation (or initial shortening).

A) Contraction (or clipping).

Contraction is the way of making a new word by means of clipping a full word (or, in other words, making a new word from a syllable of the original word).

One should distinguish between 4 types of contraction.

1) Final clipping (back-clipping), or apocope епокепі, i.e. clipping, or omission, of the final part of the word, e.g.: doc (<doctor), lab (<laboratory), mag (<magazine), prep (<preparation), veg (<vegetable), prop (<proposition), ad (<advertisement), cap (< captain), tick (<ticket), math (<mathematics), ed (<editor), uni (<university), op (<operation), Nick (<Nickolas), Ed (<Edward), Back-clippings аге most numerous in Modern English and are characterized by the growing frequency.

2) Initial clipping (or fore-clipping), or apheresis , i.e. clipping or omission of the fore part of the word, e.g. phone (<telephone), plane (<aeroplane), story (<history), cycle (<bicycle), Bert (<Albert),

Medial clipping, or syncope , i.e. omission of the middle part of the word, e.g. maths (<mathematics), fancy (<fantasy),

Mixed clipping, where the fore and the final pats of the word are clipped, e.g. tec (<detective), flu (<influenza), fridge (<refrigerator), stach (<moustache), Liz (<Elizabeth), etc. Here we can see a combination of two shortening devices: apheresis and apocope.Clipped (or contracted) words do not differ from full words in functioning; they take the plural number and that of the possessive case and make any part of a sentence. New words may be derived from the stems of clipped words by conversion

Clipping brings new words in the same part of speech

Abbreviation (initial shortening)

Abbreviation is the way of making a new word from the initial letters of a word group, e.g. U.N.O. from the United Nations Organization, B.B.C. from the British Broadcasting Corporation. Аbbreviations (or initial shortenings) are subdivided into 5 groups:1.Acronyms UNO, UNESCO , NATO WOMAN (<World Organization of Mothers of All Nations),

2. Alphabetic abbreviations in which letters get their full alphabetic pronunciation and a full stress, e.g. USA, BBC, M.P. (<member of Parliament

3. Compound abbreviations (or semi-shortenings) in which the first component is a letter (or letters) and the second component is a complete word, e.g. A-bomb (<atomic bomb), V-day (<Victory day), ID card (identity card), T-shirt (tennis-shirt

4.Graphical abbreviations which are used in texts for economy of space. Graphical abbreviations are signs or symbols that stand for the full words or combinations of words only in written speech. Mr. (mister), Mrs. (missis),

5. Latin abbreviations which are graphical abbreviations of Latin words and word combinations, for instance: etc. (et cetera),

Sound-interchange

Sound-interchange (or sound gradation, or root inflexion) is one of the two non-productive types of word-building in Modern English. The other one is stress-interchange (or change of stress).

Among the words formed with the help of sound-interchange we can distinguish 3 groups of words.

1) Words formed by means of vowel interchange, e.g. food > to feed, to shoot > shot, to sing> song

2)Words formed by means of both vowel and consonantal interchange, e.g. life > to live, choice > to choose, etc.

3)Words formed by means of consonantal interchange often accompanied by changes in spelling, e.g. house > to house- 1. поселить; 2. жить (в доме) price- цена > to prize 1. высоко ценить; 2. оценивать;

Stress-interchange

Stress-interchange (or change of stress, or semantic stress, or morphological stress) is another non-productive type of word-building in Modern English.

Change of stress is mostly observed in verb-noun pairs (e.g. ґtransport - to transґport; ґobject - to obґject;

Change of stress mostly accompanied either the formation or the borrowing of the word.

З) Back-formation (reversion)

Back-formation or reversion, by which we mean the derivation of new words, mostly verbs, by means of subtracting a suffix or other element resembling it, is a source of short words in the past and an active process at the present time

The earliest examples of this type of word-building are the verb to beg that was made from the French borrowing beggar, to burgle (совершать кражу со взломом) from burglar (вор-взломщик, ночной грабитель), the verb was made from the noun by subtracting what was mistakenly associated with the English suffix -er/-or. Back-formation or reversion may be found in the formation of words belonging to different parts of speech:

a) verbs made from names of agent with the suffixes -er, -or, -our/-eur, -ar, -rd, e.g, broker > broke;

b) verbs made from nouns with the suffix -ing, e.g. kittling > to kittle (детеныш - приносить детенышей);

c) verbs made from nouns with abstract suffixes -ence, -tion, -sion, -is, -y, -ment,-age, -ery, e.g. infraction > to infract (нарушение правила, закона - нарушать правила, закон);

d) verbs made from adjectives, e.g. luminescent > to luminesce (светящийся - светить);

е) nouns made from adjectives, e.g. greedy > greed; nasty >nast; It is to be remarked that the most active type of back-formation in Modern English is derivation of verbs from compounds that have either -er or -ing as their last element, e.g.:

to babysit < baby-sitter;

Reduplication - Удвоение (повторение звукового состава слова)

Reduplication is a very interesting type of English word-building because of its national specificity. It is the most wide-spread type among the semi-productive types of word-formation in Modern English. In reduplication new compound words are made by doubling a stem (often a pseudo-morpheme), e.g. bye-bye, ta-ta, tick-tack hokey-pokey (дешевоe мороженое), etc.

Reduplicative compounds fall into three main subgroups;

Reduplicative compounds proper whose ICs are identical in their form, e.g. murmur, thump-thump (тук-тук), willy-willy (ураган), etc.

Ablaut (gradational) compounds whose ICs have different root-vowels, e.g. ping-pong, dilly-dally (v.,колебаться), nid-nod (v., кивать), tiptop (a., превосходный), 3) Rhyme compounds whose ICs are joined to rhyme, e.g.: namby-pamby (сентиментальность), hanky-panky (обман, проделки),

This type of word-building is greatly facilitated in Modern English by the vast number of monosyllables. Stylistically speaking, most words made by reduplication represent informal groups: colloquialisms and slang, they are stylistically and emotionally colored.In the Russian language there are also words made by reduplication, e.g.: давным-давно.

І) Blending (telescopy)

Blending is a special type of compounding by means of merging (сливать, соединять) parts of words into one new word. This category of word-formation is a development which has linguistic value of its own in various languages, the tendency towards shortness has become most active in recent times, in present-day English, particularly. Familiar examples of English blend-words are: brunch (breakfast+lunch), drunch (drinks+lunch), smog (smoke+fog), dancercise (dancer+exercise), smaze It seems practical to distinguish the following groups of blends:

1) coining the new word from the initial elements of one word and the final elements of another, e.g.: bash (bang = ударить, хлопнуть + smash = разбивать вдребезги), shimmer (shine + glimmer = мерцать), Oxbridge (Oxford + Cambridge), motel (motor + hotel),

2) coining a new word by combining one notional word and the final element of another word, e.g. Manglish (man + English)

3) coining a new word by combining the initial elements of one word with a notional word, e.g.: telejournalist (television + journalist), mobus (motor + bus),

Blending or telescopy involves different lexico-grammatical categories (nouns: macon (mutton + bacon), adjectives: mangy (mean + stingy), verbs: flurry (fly + hurry), adverbs: posilutely (positively + absolutely).

Such coinages are often formed with a playful or humorous intent and have a stylistic status. They can convey various shades of emotive colouring (irony or mockery).

20. Syntactico-morphological word-building

А) Juxtapositional compounding

Compounding can be defined as the formation of a lexical unit of two or more stems. One should distinguish between morphological, syntactical and juxtapositional (or neutral) composition.

The juxtapositional way of component joining is joining them by means of simply placing them side by side. The term „juxtapositional” seems more exact for it characterizes the manner of composition - placing the stems side-by-side: a) in the same syntactical order (e.g. ash-tray, shirt-collar); b) in apposition (e.g. girl-friend, man-servant); c) in reversed order (e.g. shoe-making - making shoes; lady-killer - kill ladies.).

В) Substantivation of adjectives

Substantivation (or substantivization) is the process in which adjectives (or participles) acquire the paradigm and syntactic functions of nouns. One should distinguish two main types of substantivation - complete (or whole) and partial.

Completely (or wholly) substantivized adjectives have the full paradigm of a noun, i.e. the singular and the plural forms, the genitive case and they may be associated with various determiners (definite, indefinite and zero articles, demonstrative and possessive pronouns), e.g. an official, the official, officials, the officials, officials, officials', this official, our officials.

Partially substantivized adjectives (PSA) do not acquire the full paradigm of a noun, i.e. they acquire only some of the characteristics of the nouns; they are used with the definite article.

С) Lexicalization of the pural of nouns

There are cases when the grammatical form of the plural of nouns becomes isolated from the paradigm and acquires a new lexical meaning. This leads to the appearance of new lexical units, e.g.:

a colour - colours (=hues) :: colours (=regimental flags);

a force forces (=powers) :: forces (=an army);

a custom - customs (=habits):: customs (=taxes on imported goods);

a draught- draughts (=currents of air) :: draughts (=a game);

a glass - glasses (=vessels for drinking):: glasses (=spectacles);

a manner - manners (=ways) :: manners (=behaviour);

a moral - morals (=lessons of a story) :: morals (=standards of behaviour);

a quarter- quarters (=forth parts) :: quarters (=lodgings);

a line - lines (a long, narrow mark):: lines (= poetry) etc.

D) Conversion

Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. It's also called affivless or zero-suffixation. Modern English vocabulary is exceedingly rich in conversional pairs. As the way of forming new words conversion is extremely productive and new conversion pairs make their appearance in fiction, newspaper articles, in the process of oral communication and in all spheres of human activity gradually forcing their way into the existing vocabulary and in the dictionaries as well. Conversion is non-affixal, morphological-syntactical way of word-building which leads to the morphological, lexical, semantic and syntactic changes of a derived word.

There are 5 patterns of conversion:

l. Noun > Verb (display, n > display);

2. Verb > Noun (call, v >call, n; walk, v > walk, n);

3. Noun >Adjective (lemon, n >lemon, adj; ice, n > ice, adj; nut, n > nut, adj);

4. Adjective >Verb (dull, adj > dull, v; narrow, adj >narrow, v; cool, adj > cool, v);

5. Adjective > Noun (tall, adj > tall, n; rich, adj > rich, n; dear, adj > dear, n).

Conversion is especially productive in the formation of verbs; it is, as a matter of fact, the principal way of forming verbs in Modern English. There are two types of conversion: complete (a word is included in a new paradigm and is characterized by new grammatical categories, accepts another syntactic function and a new lexical-grammatical meaning) and partial (at first a noun is formed by conversion from a verbal stem, and then this noun is combined with such verbs as: give, make, have, take and a few others to form a verbal phrase: to have a smoke; to take a walk; to give a ride) Conversion as one of the types of word-building was productive at every stage of development of the English language and it is still productive nowadays.

21. Syntactical word-building: Syntactic compounding

Syntactic compounding is the process of semantic isolation and structural integration of free word-groups. These words are formed from segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions, adverbs, etc. E.g.: forget-me-not, lily-of-the-valley, Jack-of-all-trades, good-for-nothing, man-of-war (военный корабль), pick-me-up, milk-and-water (безвкусный; безвольный), tongue-in-cheek (неискренний), mums-to-be, hit-or-miss (случайный, сделанный кое-как), stay-at-home, know-all, know-nothing, passer-by, son-in-law, cool-to-the-touch, melt-in-the-mouth, etc. This type belongs to syntactical way of word-building in English.

22. Minor types of word-building:

Sound-imitation

Sound imitating or onomatopoeic words are on the contrary motivated with reference to extra-linguistic reality, they are echoes відлуння of natural sounds. Sound imitation (onomatopoeia or echoism) is consequently the naming of an action or thing by a more or less exact reproduction of a sound associated with it. It would, however, be wrong to think that onomatopoeic words reflect the real sounds directly, because the same sounds are represented differently in different languages. Onomatopoeic words adopt the phonetic features of English and fall into the combinations peculiar to it.

This becomes obvious when one compares onomatopoeic words crow and twitter and the words flow and glitter with which they are rhymed in the following poem:

Semantically, according to the source of sound, onomatopoeic words fall into a few very definite groups. Many verbs denote sounds produced by human beings in the process of communication or in expressing their feelings: chatter, giggle, whisper and many more. Then there are sounds produced by animals, birds and insects, e. g. buzz, crow, hiss, honk, howl, moo, mew, purr, roar and others.

Sound interchange is the way of wordbuilding when some sounds are changed to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English, it was productive in Old English. The causes of sound interchange can be different. It can be the result of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the period of the language development. E.g. strike - stroke, to sing - song. It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation, e.g. hot -heat, blood - bleed.

In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocalic position, e.g. bath - to bathe, life - to live.

1) Lexicology as a branch of linguistics.The subject matter and tasks of lexicology

2) The main methods of lexicological research

3) The place of lexicology among other sciences

4) the structure of lexicology

5) the morphemic analyses of the word

6) The morphological structure of the English word. Morphemes and their classification

7) the structural types of English word

8) native words in the English language

9)borrowed words in the English language

10)classification of borrowings according to the language from which they were borrowed

I. Romanic borrowings in the English vocabulary

a) Latin borrowings

b) French borrowings

c) Italian borrowings

d) Spanish and Portuguese borrowings

II. Germanic borrowings in the English Language

a) Scandinavian borrowings

b) German borrowings

c) Dutch borrowings

III. Slavic borrowings in the English language

a)Russian borrowings

b) Ukrainian borrowings

11. Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation

12. Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect

13) lexical meaning of the word and its types

14) causes of changes in word meaning

15) semantic groups of english words : synonyms, antonyms, homonyms and paronyms

16) main semantic structures of English words

17) Extantion and narrowing of the meaning of the English words

18) elevation and degradation of the meaning of the English words

19)Morphological word-building

Affixation or derivation

-. Suffixes

-. Prefixes

Compounding (or composition)

- Juxtapositional or neutral compounds

- Morphological compounds

- Syntactic compounds

Shortening

Abbreviation (initial shortening)

Sound-interchange

Stress-interchange

З) Back-formation (reversion)

Reduplication

Blending (telescopy)

20). Syntactico-morphological word-building

А) Juxtapositional compounding

В) Substantivation of adjectives

С) Lexicalization of the pural of nouns

D) Conversion

21) Syntactical word-building: Syntactic compounding

22) Minor types of word-building: Sound-imitation

Sound-imitation

Sound interchange

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