Exercises in lexicology

Similarly hybrid compounds were formed, e. g.faint-hearted, ill-tempered, painstaking.

Even a superficial examination of borrowed words in the English word-stock and shows that there are words among them that are easily recognized as foreign (such asdйcolletй, facade, Zeitgeist, voile) and there are others that have become so firmly rooted in the language, so thoroughly assimilated that it is sometimes extremely difficult to distinguish them from words of Anglo-Saxon origin (these are words likepupil, master, city, river, etc.).

Unassimilated words differ from assimilated ones in their pronunciation, spelling, semantic structure, frequency and sphere of application. However, there is no distinct border-line between the two groups. There are also words assimilated in some respects and unassimilated in others, they may be called partially assimilated. Such arecommunique, detentenot yet assimilated phonetically,phenomenon (pl.phenomena), graffito(pi.graffiti) unassimilated grammatically, etc. So far no linguist has been able to suggest more or less comprehensive criteria for determining the degree of assimilation of borrowings.

The degree of assimilation depends in the first place upon the time of borrowing. The general principle is: the older the borrowing, the more thoroughly it tends to follow normal English habits of accentuation, pronunciation, etc. It is natural that the bulk of early borrowings have acquired full English citizenship and that most English speaking people are astonished on first hearing, that such everyday words aswindow, chair, dish, box have not always belonged to their language. Late borrowings often retain their foreign peculiarities.

However mere age is not the sole factor. Not only borrowings long in use, but also those of recent date may be completely made over to conform to English patterns if they are widely and popularly employed. Words that are rarely used in everyday speech, that are known to a small group of people retain their foreign peculiarities. Thus many 19th century French borrowings have been completely assimilated (e.g.turbine, clinic, exploitation, diplomat), whereas the words adopted much earlier noblesse [no'bles] (ME.),ennui [г'nwi:] (1667),йclat [e?'kl?:] (1674) have not been assimilated even in point of pronunciation.

Another factor determining the process of assimilation is the way in which the borrowing was taken over into the language. Words borrowed orally are assimilated more readily, they undergo greater changes, whereas with words adopted through writing the process of assimilation is longer and more laborious.

Questions:

What are the two groups of changes that borrowings undergo?

What is phonetic assimilation?

What is grammatical assimilation?

What is lexical assimilation?

What is folk etymology?

What affects the speed of assimilation?

Influence of Borrowings

R.S. Ginzburg, A Course in Modern English, §12. Influence of Borrowings [pp. 172-174]

The great number of borrowings in English left some imprint upon the language.The first effect of foreign influence is observed in the volume of its vocabulary. Due to its history the English language, more than any other modern language, has absorbed foreign elements in its vocabulary. But the adoption of foreign words must not be understood as mere quantitative change. Any importation into the lexical system brings about semantic and stylistic changes in the words of this language and changes in its synonymic groups.

It has been mentioned that when borrowed words were identical in meaning with those already in English the adopted word very often displaced the native word. In most cases, however, the borrowed words and synonymous native words (or words borrowed earlier) remained in the language, becoming more or less differentiated in meaning and use. Cf., e.g., the sphere of application and meaning offeed andnourish, try andendeavour, meet andencounter.

As a result the number of synonymic, groups in English greatly increased. The synonymic groups became voluminous and acquired many words rarely used. This brought about a rise in the percentage of stylistic synonyms.

Influence of Borrowings on the Semantic Structure of Words. Asa result of the differentiation in meaning between synonymous words many native words or words borrowed earlier narrowed their meaning or sphere of application. Thus the wordstool of Anglo-Saxon origin, which in Old English denoted any article of furniture designed for sitting on, under the influence of the French borrowing chair came to be used as the name for only one kind of furniture.

Due to borrowings some words passed out of the literary national language and have become dialectal, aseaпотокводы (OE.ea--потокводы, река),heal, hele --скрывать, покрывать (OE. helan), etc.

Another instance of foreign influence upon the semantic structure of some English words is semantic borrowing, i.e. the borrowing of meaning from a word in a foreign language. This often take place in English words having common roots with some words in another language (international words today reflect this process best), e.g. the words pioneer and cadres which are international words have acquired new meanings under the influence of the Russianпионер andкадры. Sometimes English words acquire additional meanings under the influence of related words having quite different roots; e.g. the political meanings of shock and deviation have come from the Russianударныйand уклон.

Influence of Borrowings on the Lexical Territorial Divergence.Abundant borrowing intensified the difference between the word-stock of the literary national language and dialects. On the one hand, a number of words were borrowed into the literary national language which are not to be found in the dialects (such as literary words, scientific and political terminology, etc.). In a number of cases the dialects have preserved some Anglo-Saxon words which were replaced by borrowings in the literary language. Thus the Scotch dialect has preserved such words as ken -- знать (OE. cennan); eke --добавление (OE.eaca); eath --гладкий, легкий (OE.eaрe); fleme --обратитьвбегство, изгонять (OE. flyman).

On the other hand, a number of words were borrowed into dialects and are used throughout the country. Thus, the Scottish and Irish dialects have suffered much greater Celtic influence than the literary national language or the Southern dialect, as the Celtic languages were longer spoken in Scotland and Ireland -- some sections of the population use them even now. The Irish dialect, for example, has the following words of Celtic origin: shamrock --трилистник, dun --холм, colleen --девушка,shillelagh --дубинка, etc. In the Northern, Scottish and Eastern dialects there are many more Scandinavian borrowings than in the national literary language as most Scandinavian settlements were found in the north of the country, e.g. busk -- 'get ready'; fell--'hill'; mun--'mouth'; wapentake--'division of shire'.

Some Scandinavian borrowings ousted native words in dialects. Since many of these words were of the same root a great number of etymological doublets appeared, e.g. dag--dew, kirk--church, benk--bench, kist--chest, garth--yard, loup--leap, etc.

Influence of Borrowings on the Word-Structure, Word-Clusters and the System of Word-Building. The great number of borrowings could not but leave a definite imprint on the morphological structure of words in English. A number of new structural types appeared in the language. This took place when the morphological structure of borrowings, obscured at the time of adoption, became transparent in the course of time and served as a pattern for new formations.

Among the affixes which can be considered borrowed by English some are highly-productive and can combine with native and borrowed items (e.g. re-, inter-, -able, -er, -ism, etc.), others are not so productive and combine only with Romanic stems(co-, de-, trans-, -al, -cy, -ic, -ical, etc.), still others are often met with in borrowed words, but do not form any new words in English (-ous, -ive, -ent, etc.).

Some borrowed affixes have even ousted those of native origin, e.g. in Modern English the prefixpre- expressing priority of action has replaced the native prefixfore-, which was highly productive in Middle English and early New English, especially in the 16-17th centuries.

Another imprint of borrowings on the structural types of words in English is the appearance of a great number of words with bound morphemes, such astolerate, tolerable, tolerance, toleration, etc.

Clusters of words in English also underwent some changes--both quantitative and qualitative--due to the influx of borrowings. On the one hand, many clusters of words were enlarged. Not only were new derivatives formed with the help of borrowed affixes, but some borrowings entered the clusters of words already existing in English. Mention has already been made of Scandinavian borrowings like drip, tryst. Some Latin and French borrowings entered the clusters of words borrowed from Romanic languages before, e.g. when the French borrowings exploitation, mobilization, militarism, employee, personnel, millionaire were taken over into English in the 19th century, they occupied the position of derivatives of the words exploit, mobilize, etc. borrowed much earlier.

On the other hand, the influx of borrowings in English has changed the very nature of word-clusters which now unite not only words of the same root-morpheme, but also of different synonymous root-morphemes, as in spring--vernal, two--second, dual, sea--maritime, etc.

Influence of Borrowings on the Phonetic Structure of Words and the Sound System. As a result of intense borrowing there appeared in the English language a number of words of new phonetic structure with strange sounds and sound combinations, or familiar sounds in unusual positions. Such are the words with the initial [ps], [pn], [pt] (as in Gr. psilanthropism) which are used in English alongside with the forms without the initial sound [p].

If there were many borrowed words containing a certain phonetic peculiarity, they influenced to some extent the sound system of the language.

Thus abundant borrowing from French in the Middle English period accounts for the appearance of a new diphthong in English--[??], which, according to Prof. B. A. Ilyish, could not have developed from any Old English sound or sound combination, but came into English together with such French words as point, joint, poise. The initial [sk], which reappeared in English together with Scandinavian and other borrowings, is nowadays a common beginning for a great number of words.

Abundant borrowing also brought about some changes in the distribution of English sounds, e.g. the Old English variant phonemes [f] and [v] developed into different phonemes, that is [v] came to be used initially (as invain, valley, vulgar) and [f] in theintervocal position (as ineffect, affect, affair) which was impossible in Old English. The affricate [d?], which developed at the beginning of the Middle English period and was found at the end or in the middle of words (as in bridge -- OE. bric?; singe -- OE. senc?ean), under the influence of numerous borrowings came to be used in the initial position (as injungle, journey, gesture).

Questions:

Explain how borrowed words affected semantic structure of English words.

Give account of influence of borrowing on dialects.

How did borrowings affect word-structure and word-building in English?

What phonetical changes in English are due to borrowings?

Etymological Doublets

I.V. Arnold, The English Word, §13.3. Etymological Doublets [pp. 259-260]

The changes a loan word had had to undergo depending on the date of its penetration are the main cause for the existence of the so-called etymological doublets. Etymological doublets (or, by ellipsis, simply doublets) are two or more words of the same language which were derived by different routes from the same basic word. They differ to a certain degree in form, meaning and current usage. Two words at present slightly differentiated in meaning may have originally been dialectal variants of the same word. Thus, we find in doublets traces of Old English dialects. Examples are whole (in the old sense of 'healthy' or 'free from disease') and hale. The latter has survived in its original meaning and is preserved in the phrase hale and hearty. Both come from OEhal: the one by the normal development of OE a into o, the other from a northern dialect in which this modification did not take place. Similarly there are the doublets raid and road, their relationship remains clear in the term inroad which means 'a hostile incursion', 'a raid'.The verbs drag and draw both come from OE dragan.

The words shirt, shriek, share, shabby come down from Old English, whereas their respective doublets skirt, screech, scar and scabby are etymologically cognate Scandinavian borrowings. These doublets are characterized by a regular variation of sh and sc.

As an example of the same foreign word that has been borrowed twice at different times the doublets castle and chвteau may be mentioned. Both words come from the Latin castellun 'fort'. This word passed into the northern dialect of Old French as castel, which was borrowed into Middle English as castle. In the Parisian dialect of Old French, on the other hand, it became chastel (a Latin hard c regularly became a ch in Central Old French). In modern French chastel became chвteaux and was then separately borrowed into English meaning 'a French castle or a big country house'.

Another source of doublets may be due to the borrowing of different grammatical forms of the same word. Thus, the comparative of Latin super 'above' was superior 'higher, better', this was borrowed into English as superior 'high or higher in some quality or rank'. The superlative degree of the same Latin word was supremus 'highest'. When this was borrowed into English it gave the adjective supreme 'outstanding, prominent, highest in rank'.

Sometimes the development of doublets is due to a combination of linguistic and extra-linguistic causes. The adjective stationary for instance, means 'not moving' and stationery n -- 'writing paper, envelopes, pens, etc.' The first word is a regular derivative from the noun station to which the adjective-forming suffix -ary is added. The history of the second word is more complicated. In Medieval England most booksellers were travelling salesmen. Permanent bookstores were called stations, the salesmen of these were stationers and what they sold -- stationery (with the noun suffix -ery as in grocery or bakery).

Not all doublets come in pairs. Examples of groups are: appreciate, appraise, apprize; astound, astonish, stun; kennel, channel, canal. The Latin word discus is the origin of a whole group of doublets:

dais<MEdeis<OFdeis< Lat discus

dish<MEdish<OEdisk <Lat discus

disc/disk<Latdiscus

discus (in sport)<Lat discus

Other doublets that for the most part justify their names by coming in pairs show in their various ways the influence of the language or dialect systems which they passed before entering the English vocabulary.

Compare words borrowed in Middle English from Parisian French: chase, chieftain, chattels, guard, gage with their doublets of Norman French origin: catch, captain, cattle, ward, wage.

Questions:

What are etymological doublets?

Give examples of etymological doublets.

International Words

I.V. Arnold, The English Word, §13.4. International Words, [pp. 260-261]

As the process of borrowing is mostly connected with the appearance of new notions which the loan words serve to express, it is natural that the borrowing is seldom limited to one language. Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words.

Expanding global contacts result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary.

International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture. Thus, for example, the mankind's cultural debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of Italian words connected with architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into most European languages: allegro, andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone (and other names for voices), concert, duet, opera (and other names for pieces of music), piano and many many more.

The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of growth of international wordstock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary:algorythm, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic code, graph, microelectronics, microminiaturization, quant, quasars, pulsars, ribosome, etc. All these show sufficient likeness in English, French, Russian and several other languages.

The international wordstock is also growing due to the influx of exotic borrowed words like anaconda, bungalow, kraal, orang-outang, sari, etc. These come from many different sources.

International words should not be mixed with words of the common Indo-European stock that also comprise a sort of common fund of the European languages.

This layer is of great importance for the foreign language teacher not only because many words denoting abstract notions are international but also because he must know the most efficient ways of showing the points of similarity and difference between such words as control : : контроль; general : : генерал, industry : : индустрия or magazine : : магазин, etc. usually called 'translator's false friends'.

The treatment of international words at English lessons would be one-sided if the teacher did not draw his pupils' attention to the spread of the English vocabulary into other languages. We find numerous English words in the field of sport: football, out, match, tennis, time. A large number of English words are to be found in the vocabulary pertaining to clothes: jersey, pullover, sweater, nylon, tweed, etc. Cinema and different forms of entertainment are also a source of many international words of English origin: film, club, cocktail, jazz.

At least some of the Russian words borrowed into English and many other languages and thus international should also be mentioned: balalaika, bolshevik, cosmonaut, czar, intelligentsia, Kremlin, mammoth, rouble, sambo, soviet, sputnik, steppe, vodka.

Questions:

What are international words?

What has greatly accelerated the rate of growth of international wordstock?

Why should teachers pay attention to words of the common Indo-European wordstock?

What Russian words were borrowed into English?

Appendix A. Lexicological analysis of the text

Possible lexical phenomena which can be found in the text:

1.Motivation.Which type of motivation are used (phonetic, morphological, semantic)

2. Homonyms. Which type of homonyms is used, why? (perfect homonyms, homographs, homophones, homoforms; lexical or grammatical.)

3. Synonyms. Does the word belong to any synonymic set? What is the synonymic dominant?

4. Antonyms. Does the word have any antonyms? What types of antonyms do you know?

5. Euphemisms. Is there any in the text? To which sphere does it belong?

6. Polysemy. Is the word polysemantic? What other meanings do you know? What is the central meaning?

7. Morphological groupings. To which morphological group does the word belong?(number and type of morphemes, which compose the word). On which principle is it based?

8. Change of meaning (metaphor, metonymy,litotes,hyperbole? extension, restriction, degradation, elevation). Which component undergoes the change?

9 .Phraseologicalunits:

Phraseological fusion

Phraseological units

Phraseological combination

Interjectional phraseological units

Communicative phraseological units

10. Define the type of the word building.

Productive ways of word building:

Affixation (what types of affixes are used, are they borrowed or native? Their meanings.Allomorphs.Hybrids)

Conversion (Types of relations between the members of converting pairs). Types of conversion.

Composition (type of joining stems together, types of relations-coordinative, subordinative, coordinative; semantic center). Classification according to the degree of motivation: motivated, non-motivated.

Shortening (clipping, abbreviation: a)lexical abbreviation b) graphical abbreviation)

Type of the compound: a)Compound proper b) Compound derivative c) Compound with a shortened element)

Minor types of word building.

Sound interchange

Sound imitation and sound symbolism

Reduplication

Blends

Back-formation

Lexicalization of grammatical inflections

11. Etymology.

Origin: source 1.oral 2. written

Degree of assimilation

Translation loans

Semantic loans.

Etymological doublets (1. Graphical indication of borrowings 2.Affixes indicating the origin of the word)

Neologisms

Example analysis

"Hist!" cried Holmes, and I heard the sharp click of a cocking pistol. "Look out! It's coming!"

There was a thin, crisp, continuous patter from somewhere in the heart of that crawling bank. The cloud was within fifty yards of where we lay, and we glared at it, all three, uncertain what horror was about to break from the heart of it. I was at Holmes's elbow, and I glanced for an instant at his face. It was pale and exultant, his eyes shining brightly in the moonlight. But suddenly they stared forward in a rigid, fixed stare, and his lips parted in amazement. At the same instant Lestrade gave a yell of terror and threw himself face downward upon the ground. I sprang to my feet, my inert hand grasping my pistol, my mind paralyzed by the dreadful shape which had sprung out upon us from the shadows of the fog. A hound it was, an enormous coal-black hound, but not such a hound as mortal eyes have ever seen. Fire burst from its open mouth, its eyes glowed with a smouldering glare, its muzzle and hackles and dewlap were outlined in flickering flame. Never in the delirious dream of a disordered brain could anything more savage, more appalling, more hellish be conceived than that dark form and savage face which broke upon us out of the wall of fog.

With long bounds the huge black creature was leaping down the track, following hard upon the footsteps of our friend. So paralyzed were we by the apparition that we allowed him to pass before we had recovered our nerve. Then Holmes and I both fired together, and the creature gave a hideous howl, which showed that one at least had hit him. He did not pause, however, but bounded onward. Far away on the path we saw Sir Henry looking back, his face white in the moonlight, his hands raised in horror, glaring helplessly at the frightful thing which was hunting him down.

hist = interjection imitating a sound

click = sound imitation, motivated phonetically

crisp - sound imitation, symbolism.

glance - glare - stare = gradation in connotation

heart - motivated semantically - has a figurative meaning

exultant = Latin borrowings

moonlight - compound noun made of two stems - fully motivated semantically

lips parted - metaphor

gave a yell - nominalization, denote an isolated act of a concrete process

paralyzed - allomorph of the Greek suffix -ize

shape = metonymy

coal-black = compound adjective, epithet

disordered = disorder = dis+order - derivational antonym of “order”

hellish = hell + adj-forming suffix “ish”

face, eyes = synecdoche

wall of fog = metaphor

fire burst = hyperbole

creature = periphrase

footstep = compound noun proper formed from stems of words existing in l-ge

recovered = re+cover =repeating action, morphologically partially motivated

fired = homonym proper to

howl = sound imitation

saw = homonym proper to “a saw” - пила

Appendix B Mind-map of lexicology terms



Appendix C Definitions

Seminar 1. Lexicology as a science. The object of lexicology.

Lexicology - the branch of linguistics, concerned with the vocabulary of the language and the properties of words.

Word- 1) a basic unit of any language, which serves as a name of things, actions, qualities; it is a two-faced unit, possessing both the form and the content.

2) one of the fundamental units of language, dialectical unity of form and content. It is related both to extralinguistic reality and to human notions, and its basic function is to reflect reality in its content. It is used for purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning and characterized by formal and semantic unity.

Morpheme - the smallest meaningful unit, two-faced one, but in contrast to the word it cannot function independently. We use them only when we speak of word structure and word formation.

Phraseological units - set-phrases with transferred meaning, which may even function as word equivalents.

Phraseology - the branch of lexicology specializing in word-groups which are characterized by stability of structure and transferred meaning.

System - a certain abstraction, a whole constituted by intodepended elements of the same order, and we study the properties of these elements and the relationships they enter.

Syntagmatic relations- those,which are based on the linear character of speech and they are studied by means of contextual, transformational and other types of analysis. In syntagmatic relations, context is most important.

Context- the minimal stretch of speech necessary and sufficient to determine which of the possible meaning of a word is used. Syntagmatic relations are reflected in the collocability of words and phonological units.

Paradigmatic relations reveal themselves in the morphemic structure of words. They are described in terms of morphemes and their arrangement.

The synchronic approach- one which is concerned with the state of a language at a given state of its development. This method of study is applied in descriptive lexicology which analyses the present day state of the vocabulary.

The diachronic approach deals with the change and development of a language in a course of time. It results in historical lexicology which studies the language in its flux.

The special lexicologydeals with rather not universals but with specific features of the given language.

The general lexicology- one which is concerned with properties and features common to the vocabulary of any language. The special lexicology concentrates rather not on the universal but on specific features of a given language.

Sociolinguistics- a branch of science which deals with correlations between the facts of social life and linguistic facts, the system of the language and its development.

Linguostylistic- a branch of linguistics dealing with the investigation of the styles of speech and stylistic expressive means with relation to the contents expressed.

Seminar 2. Semasiology.

Meaning - one of the most important characteristics of a word as a unit of communication. It is one of the most controversial terms in the theory of language.

Referential approachtries to formulate the essence of meaning through establishing the interdependence between words and things or concepts they denote, or between the language and reality.

Functional approach studies the functions of a word in speech and is less concerned with what the meaning is, with how it works.

Conception approach - studies the word meaning as a concept.

Concept - a category of human cognition, the tough of an object that singles out its essential features.

Grammatical meaning - the recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different forms of different words as the tense meaning or case meaning.

Lexical meaning - is identical in all the forms of the word, where there is the same semantic component, denoting one or another meaning.

Lexico-grammatical meaning - a common denominator of all the meanings of a word, belonging to a lexico-grammatical class of words; it is the feature according to which they are grouped together.

Denotative component - one which express the conceptual or notional content of a word, that is it enables the word to reflect reality or thought in its content.

Significant denotation - one which awakes a general idea.

Demonstrative denotation - one which identify an actual referent.

Connotative component - one which embraces emotive and stylistic value of a word. It does not describe the word fully, it only nominates the concept.

Connotation - the emotional component of a word, which enables the speaker to express emotions.

Motivation - a relationship existing between the morphemic or phonemic composition of a word and its meaning.

Phonetic motivation - a direct connection between the meaning and the sound form.

Morphological motivation - a direct connection between the structural pattern of a word and its meaning.

Semantic motivation - is based on the coexistence of two meanings of the same word (direct and figural).

Seminar 3. Polysemy and Homonymy.

Polysemy - plurality of meanings, a semantic universal which it exists only in the language, not in speech.

Radiation- a process of the semantic development of a word, where the primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays.

Concatenation- a process of the semantic development of a word, where secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain.

Perfect homonyms - the words, identical in sound and spelling.

Full homonyms - words which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm.

Partial homonyms: 1) simple lexico-grammatical - the words which belong to the same category of parts of speech; their paradigms have only one identical form, but it is never the same form.

2) complex lexico-grammatical - the words of different categories of parts of speech which have identical forms in their paradigms.

3) partial lexical homonyms - the words of the same category of parts of speech which are only identical in their corresponding forms.

Homographs- the words with the same spelling but are pronounced differently.

Homophones - the words, pronounced identically but spelled differently.

Lexical method - is concluded in revealing the synonymic connection of Polysemy and homonymy. In Polysemy we deal with the different meanings of the same word. In homonymy we have different words, which have their own meanings.

Semantic method - implies that the difference between Polysemy and homonymy is actually reduced to the differentiation between related and unrelated meanings.

Morphological method - means that Polysemy and homonymy are characterized by the various word-building.

Capitonyms- the words which change their meaning when written with the capital letter.

Seminar 4. Change of Meaning.

The discrimination (conflict) of synonyms - when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other language, one of them may specialize in its meaning.

Linguistic analogy or attraction of meaning - as soon as one member of a synonymic set acquires a new meaning, others are to follow it.

Linguistic ellipsis - when one of the two or more words is omitted its meaning is transferred onto the part.

Metaphor - a hidden comparison, a strong analogy or likeness between the objects; if this likeness is evident, then this metaphor is accepted in the lexical system.

Metonymy - an association between two things with the result of the transferring the meaning of one thing to the other.

Hyperbole - transference of meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration.

Litotes - transference of meaning when the speaker expresses the affirmative with the negative or vise versa.

Seminar 5. Lexical Paradigmatics.

System - a unity in which various elements are regularly linked with each other and enter certain types of relations.

Lexical paradygmatics - a systematic analysis of the interconnected units of the vocabulary of a language.

Syntagmatic relations - those which the word enters when it is used in combination with other words in the flow of speech (linear relationships with neighboring words in connected speech).

Paradigmatic relations - those where the word is studied in its relationships with other words in the vocabulary system (synonymy, antonymy, functional styles).

Context- the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of a word.

Morphological groupings: 1) derivational groupings - groups which are built on a morphological principle that means derivational groupings are due to the peculiarities in the morphological structure of words.

2) word-family - groups where words are grouped on morphological principle around a root.

3) form-words and notional words - form-words express primary grammatical relationships between words (auxiliary words, prepositions, conjunctions, relative adverbs); notional words name the object of reality and lexical meaning in them is predominant.

4) LGG - a class of words which have a common lexico-grammatical meaning, a common paradigm, the same substituting elements and a characteristic set of affixes.

Semantic groupings: 1) thematic groups - based on concurrence of words in so rapidly used context.

2) Semantic groups (conceptual field) - based on a common context or semantic element, underline their meaning.

3) Lexico - semantic groups - words describing different sides of one and the same general notion.

4) Hyponymic groups -words which are grouped according to the hierarchal relationships of the general and the particular relations of inclusion.

5) Synonymic and antonyms - based ob similarity and contrast which form the basis of the classification into synonyms and antonyms.

Synonymic sets - sets of words, united on the basis of the semantic similarity to the semantic dominant, which is semantically the most elementary stylistically unmarked, having brought combinability, a broad general meaning, member of the semantic set, which have high frequency of usage and lack of connotations, it is a kind of the centre of the group of synonyms holding all together.

Euphemisms - (originally) words or phrases used in place of religious words which should not be spoken aloud.

Absolute antonyms - made up of words or of different roots, expressing polar notions.

Derivational antonyms - those having different affixes, but same roots, expressing contrary notions.

Contextual antonyms - those which are polar in a certain context.

Phraseological antonyms - polar phraseological units.

Seminar 6. Syntagmatic relations o words.

Lexical valency - the first factor limiting the possible combinability of words, a possibility of connecting words in the language.

Lexical collocability - the realization of these potential connections in speech.

Grammatical valency - the minimal grammatical context in which the words are used when brought together to form word-groups is usually described as the pattern of a word-group.

Phraseological units (Prof.Kunin) - stable word-combinations with a completely or partially transferred meaning.

Collocations- traditional combinations in which one of the components has a phraseological bound meaning, possesses a specific lexical valency while the other member is used in its direct meaning.

Proverb - a short pithy saying in frequent and widespread use that expresses a basic truth or practical precept.

Saying- a usually pithy and familiar statement expressing an observation or principle generally accepted as wise or true

Appendix D

Examination Questions

Lexicology as a science. The object of Lexicology and its connection with other branches of linguistics.

The word as a main language unit. The relation between a word and a notion.

The problem of definition of a word and its principal characteristics.

The elements of the semantic structure of a word. Polysemy in English.

Polysemy and Homonymy. The problem of differentiation of polysemy and homonymy.

Antonymic relations between vocabulary units. Some common and distinctive features of antonyms and synonyms.

Types of meaning. Meaning in syntagmatics and paradigmatics.

Meaning in compounds.

Semantic change as a source of quantitative and qualitative growth of vocabulary. Widening and narrowing of meaning. Degradation and elevation of meaning. Other types of semantic change.

Types of synonyms. Synonymic sets and their patterns. Euphemisms as a special type of synonyms. Differentiation of synonyms.

Homonyms in English. Classifications of homonyms.

Synonymy in English. Criteria of synonymity.

The origin of homonyms.

The morpheme. Types of morphemes and allomorphs.

The development of the English vocabulary. Causes of vocabulary development.

Systematic groupings of words. Thematic groupings.

Synchronic treatment of homonyms. Differentiation of polysemy and homonymy.

The problem of motivation of words.

Types and causes of semantic transference.

Semantic fields.

Meaning in derivatives. Synonymy, polysemy and homonymy of affixes.

Morphemic and derivational analysis. Analysis into IC.

Word-formation. Synchronic and diachronic approaches. Different types and ways of word-building in English

Suffixation in English. The etymology and productivity of English suffixes.

Prefixation in English.

Conversion as one of the most productive ways of word-building in English. Different conceptions of the problem of conversion. Diachronic and synchronic approaches to the study of conversion.

Typical semantic relations between members of converted pairs in synchronic approach.

The problem of substantivation.

Word-compounding in English. Classification of compounds.

The criteria of distinguishing compounds from word-combinations.

Shortening as a productive way of word-building in Modern English. Various types of abbreviated words.

Minor types of word-building (back derivation, sound imitation, reduplication, sound and stress interchange, lexicalization of grammatical forms).

Graphical abbreviations, acronyms, blendings.

Historical changebility of word-structure.

Combinability and valency.

Phraseological units. Their stability, divisibility and semantic unity.

Classification of phraseological units.

The etymological background of the English vocabulary. Native and borrowed elements.

Ways and causes of borrowing. Different types of loan words. Criteria of borrowings.

Sources of borrowing in English. French loans. The role of French borrowings in English.

The role of Latin borrowings in English.

Borrowings from other languages.

Different types of loan words. The process of assimilation.

The problem of international words.

Hybrids.

Translation loans, semantic loans, etymological doublets.

Neologisms. Ways of their formation.

Variants and dialects of the English language. AE and BE.

Lexicography and the main principles of compiling dictionaries.



Appendix E

Seminar 1. Lexicology as a science. The object of lexicology.

Write down the words with syntagmatic relations in the left column and with paradigmatic relations in the right one.

Work - labor

To take the bull by the horns

Busy - idle

To see red

To accept - to reject

Birds of a feather

Man - chap - guy

Leaf of a book

Hands of a clock

Where do we observe the synchronical approach and where the diachronical one?

Husband - simple word (1 morpheme)

Husband - compound word (2 morphemes - house + bonda)

Beggar - ar - suffix (to beg - derivative)

Beggar - Fr. Beggar - to beg (обратное словообразование)

Where do we observe indivisibility and where - intereptibility?

To stay a()lone

The boy(s) slow(ly) walk(ed) up the hill

A black () bird

A blackbird

Seminar 2. Semasiology.

Where do we observe the relationships between meaning and a) sound form; b) concept; c) referent?

Seal - sill

Boat - лодка, пароход)

Dove - голубка - tauber, pigeon

Water - H2O

Духи - вонявки (чеш.) - perfume (Fr.)

Нога - foot, leg

Невеста - булка (болгар.)

Coat - пальто, пиджак

Остановка - дурак (тур.)

Which type of the connotative component do we observe in the following rows of words?

To glare - to gaze - to glance

To shiver - to shudder

To astonish - to surprise - to amuse

Celebrated - outstanding - notorious - popular - famous

To love - to be fond of - to like - to adore - to admire - to worship - to dote

Which motivation do we observe here?

Boom

Rewrite

Mouth

Blackboard

His-s-s

Crumble

Cranberry

Wallflower

Wow-wow

Tut-tut



Seminar 3. Polysemy and Homonymy.

Where do we observe a) shifts in application; b) specialization: c) metaphorical extension&

Red ink, red deer, red cabbage, red Indian

Leaf of a tree - leaf of a book

Business partner - marriage partner - partner in crime

Hands of a person - hands of a clock

Legs of a table

Name the type of a homonym here

School (школа) - school (косяк рыб)

Bow (поклон) - bow (лук)

Night - knight

Rose (роза) - rose (прош. от rise)

Lie (лежать)- lie (лгать)

What phenomena do we face in the following words?

Polish (польский) - polish (полировать)

What methods do we face in the following words?

Voice - голос, залог

Man - (…more than 10 definitions in Modern English)

Fair - a person with light hair; just honest

Seminar 4. Change of Meaning.

Where do we observe a) the conflict of synonyms b) the linguistic analogy c) linguistic ellipsis?

Sky - heavens

Finals (последние экзамены)

To catch, to get, to grasp = to understand

The Kremlin

What type of the similarity of the metaphor do we observe here?

Head of cabbage

The key of the mystery

A book-worm

The foots of mountains

Orange violet

The eye of a needle

3. What type of the metonymies do we observe here?

Glass, china, silver

The Board

The first violin

Sandwich, Disney

To eat a whole plate

China

Where do we observe hyperbole and where - litotes?

I have not seen you for ages!

Not bad

T hate doing it

We are dead

No coward

To make a mountain out of a molehill

No fool

Seminar 5. Lexical Paradigmatics.

Find out where do we observe a) root-words b) derivatives c) compounds d) compound - derivatives?

Day

Undone

Daybook

Blue-eyed

Do

Bookish

Notebook

Blackbird

Daily

Left-handed

Table

Refer the words to following groupings a) thematic b) semantic c) lexico-semantic d) homonymic e) synonyms f) antonyms

Election, to nominate, nominee, polling station, voters, ballot

Eye, leg, foot, ear, mouth

To get, to understand, to realize

Car, bus, rickshaw, scooter, bicycle

Big - fat, big - great

War - peace

Up - down

Name the type of the following synonyms

Idle. Lazy, indolent

Father - daddy

Motherland - fatherland

To get - to buy

To surprise - to astonish

To say - to speak

Alone -lonely - single

Famous - well-known - notorious

Refreshment - feast

Money - cabbage - bax -beans - brass

To visit (the museum) - to attend (a lecture)

Continue the following synonymic set

Fear - ?

To love - ?

Write down euphoniums for the following words:

To die - ?

Burial - ?

To kill -?

Grave digger - ?

Pregnancy -?

To be poor - ?

What type of antonyms do we observe here?

Round - square

Friend - enemy

Left - right

Like - dislike

Good - bad

In the dry tree - in the green tree

To swim like a fish - to swim like a stone

Seminar 6. Syntagmatic relations o words.

1. What type of word-groups do we observe here?

A blue () sky

A magnifying glass

To guess - to give a guess

Artesian well

How do you do?

To make up

2. What type of phraseological unit according to the functional classification do we observe here?

Show the hills, take the bull by the horns

Odds and adds, a bull in a China shop

Side by side, in the long run

My eye!

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