Presenting and Explaining Grammar

In this way the problems that learners have in relation to various features of grammar discourse were highlighted and taken into consideration in the process of investigation.

The purpose of the experiment was to identify the types of grammar activities students are more successful at and to prove the necessity of creating grammar workshop in the classroom, i.e. talking explicitly about the stages of grammar process, applying them into practice and using peer-evaluation at the stage of revising.

Grammar which should be studied during the academic year is spread within eight units of the course-book. Thus, Unit 1 supposes the study of the constructions There is and It is, and also the collective nouns. The control group (Group N1) was taught according to the structure suggested by the above mentioned course-book.

In the experimental group the grammar activity was viewed as an independent part of the lesson including all the stages, i.e. presenting grammar, explanation, and control. The procedure was the following:

1. Presenting grammar (instruction, explanation) - 1^st stage

As the course-book does not contain any description of grammar, but comprises only one exercise on this piece of grammar, teacher prepares some additional information about the introductory “It” and its distinction from the construction `There is'. The material for explanation is prepared by the teacher. The idea is: Introductory `It' opens the sentence and plays the role of a Subject substituting a pronoun or a noun. It is used when a sentence does not contain a concrete subject but describes abstract phenomenon. Introductory `It' is used

1) When the subjective is an infinitive phrase

We begin a sentence with it when the real subject is an infinitive phrase. So instead of saying, `To accept your advice is difficult', we say, `It is difficult to accept your advice'.

Structure:

It + verb + subject complement + infinitive phrase (real subject)

E.g.: It is easy to learn English. (= To learn English is easy.) It is easy to find fault with others. (= To find fault with others is easy.) It is difficult to know his motive. (= To know his motive is difficult.) It is difficult to find a good job during these troubled times. It is dangerous to play with fire. It could be dangerous to drive so fast.

Note that when we wish to emphasize the infinitive phrase, it may be put at the beginning, especially when it is short.

E.g.: To err is human. (OR: It is human to err.) To become a well known writer was his life-long ambition. (OR: It was his lifelong ambition to become a well known writer.) To invest all your money in shares is foolish. (OR: It is foolish to invest all your money in shares.)

2) When the subject is a gerund phrase

When the real subject is a phrase that includes a gerund, it is used as a provisional subject to begin the sentence. So instead of saying `Your trying to fool us is no good', we say, `It is no good you're trying to fool us.'

E.g.: It won't be any good complaining to the manager. (Complaining to the manager won't be any good.) It is silly throwing away this opportunity. (Throwing away this opportunity is silly.) Will it be any good my talking to him about it? (Will my talking to him about it be any good?) It is no fun having so many children to look after. (Having so many children to look after is no fun.)

Note that it is possible to change the gerund into an infinitive.

E.g.: It won't be any good for me to complain to the manager. It is silly (for you) to throw away this opportunity. Will it be any good for me to talk to him about it? Many of these sentences can also be re-written as exclamatory sentences. How silly of you to throw away this opportunity!

3) When the subject is a clause

When the subject is a clause, the sentence usually begins with it. So instead of saying `That he was once a communist is true', we say, `It is true that he was once a liberal'.

E.g.: It does not matter whether he comes or not. (Whether he comes or not does not matter.) It is required that he should pay the fine. (That he should pay the fine is required.) It is clear that he overheard our conversation. (That he overheard our conversation is clear.) It is clear that you are not interested in this offer. (That you are not interested in the offer is clear.) It cannot be denied that they tried their best to help him. (That they tried their best to help him cannot be denied.) It doesn't matter whether we buy it now or later. (Whether we buy it now or later does not matter.) [14, pp.168-170]

4) Introductory it with seem, appear and look

Introductory it is also used with seem, appear and look when the subject is an infinitive phrase, a phrase with a gerund in it or a clause.

E.g.: It looked doubtful whether she would come It seemed strange that she should behave like that. It seems possible that she may quit the job. It appeared unwise to offend him. It does not seem much good going on with the work.

5) Introductory it as an object

It is sometimes used as the object of the verbs think, feel, deem, count, consider etc.

E.g.: Don't you think it dangerous to drive so carelessly? I consider it a privilege to have this opportunity of welcoming you. I think it odd that she doesn't write to me these days. I think it a pity that she could not win. We think it improper that he should be so dictatorial. He made it clear what he wanted. I find it difficult to talk to him.

6) Introductory it in questions

The introductory it is sometimes used in questions.

E.g.: Who was it that broke the window? It is Peter who broke the window. Why was it that he stole the bread? It was because he was poor that he stole the bread. When was it that the manager came? It was at 10 am that the manager came.

All these examples are typed on the sheets of paper and distributed among the students. The teacher comments on each sample sentence while explaining the new grammar structure. The teacher`s explanation can be based on grammar focus which is situated at pp.6-7 of the students` course-book where the sentences with the introductory `It' are described as a new grammar structure. After all, the teacher passes to the second stage what is grammar practice itself. [48, p.33]

2. Grammar practice - 2^nd stage

There is only one exercise on this piece of grammar in the students` course-book which is placed on page 7. This exercise just follows theory on grammar focus and is supposed to be done in the classroom. So, this exercise is as follows:

Put the suitable structure, either `it is' or `there is', `there are' in each space, and act the mini-dialogues.

1. What`s the time? - … … 3.30. And what`s the date? - … … the 24^th.

2. How far … … to York? - … … 50 miles.

3. … … hot in July? - Yes, … ….

4. … … very stormy last night? - Yes, … … storms all over the country.

5. … … freezing very hard. - … … ice on the lake tomorrow.

6. … … yesterday that I saw him. - Really?

7. As … … sunny they decided to take the children to the sea. - Oh, did they?

8. Ann is very busy. - … … much work to do.

9. … … not any shadows because … … no sun. - … … behind the clouds.

10. … … going to be a bus strike tomorrow. - … … … all right if … … a fine day.

11. … … nothing to think about. - I don`t think so.

12. … … a pity to stay in when … … so nice outside. - Let`s go out. [32, p.34]

This exercise can be done very quickly if students only insert the necessary constructions. But this does not give good results in understanding and memorizing this grammar focus. As there is no any other grammar exercises on this point in Lesson 1, a teacher needs to conduct an additional work with this exercise and / or add some more exercises from the other resources. So, while doing this exercise the students were asked to comment why namely this construction was used. Such an explanation makes students more thoughtful, creative and meaningful because they attract previously got grammar theory (rules). Besides, students were asked to translate these sentences, paying attention to the difference of use of these two constructions.

As it was mentioned above, a teacher can add some more exercises on this piece of grammar, having typed them and distributed to the students. Here are some examples:

Insert the suitable structure - `it is' or `there is' a space place, paying attention to the difference of their usage.

1. Oh, they tried to hush it up; but I took it direct to the man who wrote it - the man in that house! … is in his hand. … is signed with his initials. … is a direction for finding the secret of this new Noiseless Powder. … note is in German, and was found in a German's pocket.

2. … is one way of making a common room full of invisible, overpowering poison: turning on the gas - the crime of a white man.

3. … is true I will not meet M. Stark, though he is storming outside this very room. … is true I have asked two other men to confront him for me.

4. Before I am triumphantly cleared before a court, … is another arbitration this gentleman owes me as a gentleman, and in referring him to my seconds I am strictly.

5. "And … is?" asked Father Brown. "… is," said his friend gloomily. "… is a clumsy forgery by somebody who knew nothing of the real hiding-place”. 6. … is something in this business quite different from the ordinary police mystery where one man is more or less lying and the other man more or less telling the truth.

7. I think … is psychologically possible - in an enlightened age, you know. 8. "Do you know," he said, "… is something about this place that".

9. … is not mysterious, … is not even odd, that a jailbird should take his gun to Pilgrim's Pond.

10. … is no reason why anybody in America should want to kill an English lord newly landed, except for the one reason mentioned in the pink paper - that the lord is paying his attentions to the millionaire's daughter. [29, p.48]

The sentences for this exercise were selected from the original English literature, namely from “The Father Brown” by G.K. Chesterton. Besides the fulfilling of grammar exercise students get acquainted with the beautiful literary English language what is a good language practice for them, too.

It is also possible to select a reading passage from the original literature and ask the students to find out all the sentences containing `It is' or `There is' and to give the explanation to the cases of use and difference between them. But, there is a text for this lesson which is placed on page 5 called “Mary`s Day” which can be used for such activity. Observing this text, it is possible to see that in some sentences the construction `It is' is italicized. So, the teacher can ask the students to explain each case.

One more additional exercise it is possible to do in the classroom. It is a slash sentence exercise. It is as follows:

Put the following words in a correct order, making up sentences. Pay attention to the use of `It is' and `There is'.

1. Once / certain / it /murder/ than / is/ he/ done/ more/ had.

2. No/ at/ mystery/ there/ all/ is/ here.

3. You/ there/ no/ curse/ is/ on.

4. Is/ problem/ an/ it/ extraordinary.

5. Meet/ there/ to/ is/ refuse/ a/ whom/ man/ house/ in/ refuse/ this.

6. But/ times/ it/ three/ is/ or/ perfectly/ two/ true/ down/ that/ burnt/ this/ been/ tower/ has.

7. Your/ innocent/ innocent/ there/ there/ is/ record/ man/ his/ and/ is.

8. It/ weather/ shore/ basking/ is/ the/ hardly/ for/ on.

9. Mews/ mansions/ there/ tall/ between/ is/ the/ sort/ two/ a/ of/ of.

10. Waistcoat/ white/ it/ inside/ his/ is/ wore/ needless/ spats/ and/ to/ slip/ that/ say/ he/ white/ a. [28, pp.216-218]

When students fulfill this exercise, it is supposed that besides the word order they pay attention to the difference in the usage of two constructions `It is' or `There is'. Understanding such difference makes them better understand the cases of use for each construction.

After each exercise had been done, students were asked to exchange their exercise-books and check the correctness or incorrectness by their desk-mates. And only in the case if any comments are supposed by the tasks to the exercises group or total discussion may take place.

After grammar practice we passed to the grammar control.

3. Grammar control - 3^rd stage

Grammar control has a great variety of forms and activities. It can be fulfilling of some exercises at home, as also in the classroom but themselves, without the comment and explanation, only for the control, any quiz or something the like can be given to the students for checking their knowledge. But this last form can be supposed only for the next lesson or as a part of the round-up lesson. During our experiment we used the following forms of grammar control:

Learners fulfilled the grammar exercise as a home task. It is placed on page 149 in the section “Supplement. Extended Grammar Practice”.

“Insert it is / there is” in the spaces. In some sentences negative and interrogative forms, or the past or future tenses are required.

1. … a hotel in the village, so we decided to stay there. … a charming village and I was very happy there, but my children were bored because … nothing to do in the evenings.

2. … a pond beside your house? - Yes, … . How deep … ?

3. We`ve done all we can, … nothing to do now but wait.

4. - Has Tom any more children? - Yes, … a daughter, Ann. - Oh, yes, … Ann who opened the door for us yesterday, …?

5. … autumn. … many coloured leaves on the ground.

6. … nothing to be done about this.

7. … still very early and … nobody to be seen in the street.

8. … far from my house to the Institute.

9. … so cold out-of-doors yesterday, and today … not so cold. I think … warmer tomorrow.

10. … grandmother who makes the decisions. [58, pp.149]

Besides, it is also possible to give the students a reading passage selected from the original English or American literature and ask them to find out all the sentences containing `It is' or `There is' and to give the explanation to the cases of their use and difference between them. Such activity can be given as a home task.

Role-playing next lesson is a good form of grammar control, too.

So, all the 3 stages in grammar study (presenting, practice and control) take place during the experiment carried out in the 8^th grade while having the pedagogical practice.

Thus the grammar activities fulfilled in both groups differ in the following aspects:

1) Each grammar activity in the experimental group started with a clear-cut presenting grammar stage.

2) Learners from the experimental group had a clear purpose of grammar assignment and a perspective of audience.

3) During the stage of grammar practice there was used the technique of peer-evaluation. Students of the experimental group had the ability to read each other's exercises and express their opinions by suggesting some revisions and reconstructions.

At the post-experimental stage students were proposed to fill the same questionnaire they had filled at the pre-experimental stage for the purpose to notice the results of the use of modern techniques and activities for improving language study, namely, on grammar study.

The results obtained in both groups are presented below:

¹	Problem area	Number of points	Percentage drop
		Group 1 (of 68 possible)	Group 2 (of 72 possible)	Group1	Group 2
1.	Incorrect use of the constructions There is / It is.	16	20	6.5%	8.5%
2.	Difficulties with identification of countable and uncountable nouns.	41	39	16.7%	16.5%
3.	The use of prepositions is too hard.	25	27	10.2%	11.5%
4.	Difficulties in guessing the meaning of single words from the context	27	19	11%	8%
5.	Difficulties in organizing ideas into sentences.	45	37	18.3%	15.7%
6.	Hard to indicate time by such expressions as `next week', `last Friday', `in May'.	20	15	8%	6.4%
7.	Difficulties in transforming sentences into the Reported Speech.	37	38	15%	16%
8.	Difficulties with articles.	35	41	14.3%	17.4%

Moreover, learners from the experimental group (Group 2) were asked to share their opinions on grammar assignments they had performed. They were given a feedback questionnaire on their grammar activities.

Students Feedback Questionnaire

Make a check mark to show your agreement or disagreement with the following statements.

¹	Statements	Agree	Disagree
1.	Techniques which were used did not help me to practice my grammar abilities.	2	15
2.	The purpose of grammar tasks was clear for me.	16	1
3.	I found nothing different from previous grammar exercises I had done.	2	15
4.	Work at each stage was set up clearly.	14	3
5.	Presenting grammar helped me to do grammar exercises.	16	1
6.	The way the tasks were designed was interesting.	16	1
7.	I participated better during class, group, pair work.	14	3
8	Some of the tasks were confusing.	2	15
9.	Similar tasks should be designed during the school year.	14	3

§3.2 Results of the Experiment

After having analyzed grammar assignments fulfilled by the students and having compared learners` questionnaires completed before and after the experiment, there were distinguished significant changes on students` perception of grammar tasks and the results achieved by the learners in Group 2, i.e. experimental group. Considering two diagrams reflecting the difficulties encountered by the students during the process of grammar, it is easy to notice that the amount of difficulties that learners have in relation to various features of grammar study has decreased.

Before the experiment



After the experiment

The given diagrams illustrate results of the questionnaires filled by the learners of Group 2 before and after the experiment. The horizontal ax shows the ordinal number of the problem area and the vertical ax shows the amount of points obtained by this problem area. The total number of points gained by each of the eight statements of the questionnaire reveals the degree of difficulty of counterparts of grammar study. The larger number of points acquired the greater degree of difficulties students encounter.

Let us compare the two diagrams. The quantity of difficulties that students have with the correct use of the constructions `There is' / `It is' has significantly lessened (from 25 to 20 points). These results were achieved due to the modern presentation and practicing grammar techniques used during the experiment. Such activities as presenting grammar, grammar instruction, error correction, model sentences for oral practice, question and answer, dialogues, situations, demonstration texts (contextualization), grammatical explanation, quiz, puzzle, games, and some other helped to improve the students` grammar competence and skills.

As a result the amount of difficulties encountered by the learners, while identification of countable and uncountable nouns, has decreased from 44 to 39 points. The other technique that enabled students to get started and organize their ideas in a proper way was the contextualizing of assignments, i.e. giving the purpose of grammar study and suggesting an audience. It specifies the content of the assignment and helps learners to read, write, listen and speak more effectively.

The process of grammar practice and revising as well as presenting grammar activities helped students to lessen the problem of vocabulary (from 22 to 19 points), difficulties in organizing ideas into sentences - from 42 to37. Difficulties with the reported speech were also significantly lessened, namely - from 50 to 38. And, finally the problem with articles was solved, too. The amount of points before the experiment (44) significantly decreased (41), too. Though more time is spent on presenting grammar and grammar practice the whole amount of time used for fulfilling the assignments is practically equal in both experimental and control groups. Students of the experimental group do not waste much time on generating their ideas and compiling exercises as they do it working together at the first stage.

On considering students feedback questionnaires it was evident that most students were satisfied with the grammar assignments they had fulfilled. Thus, 16 students of 17 agreed that the purpose of grammar tasks was clear for them. 14 students of 17 agree that work at each stage was set up clearly, as also they recognized that they participated better during class, group and pair work and also agreed that similar tasks should be designed during the school year.

The results obtained after analyzing pre-experimental and post-experimental questionnaires of the control Group 1 showed that the amount of difficulties students encounter while fulfilling grammar assignments has remained practically unchanged. The following charts illustrate this fact.

Before the experiment

After the experiment



It is obvious that the amount of difficulties represented by the vertical ax - practically hasn`t been changed after the experiment.

In general students from the experimental group were more successful at fulfilling all the assignments.

After having checked the grammar assignments fulfilled by the students of both groups, there was made the analysis of mistakes made by the learners. The results of the analysis and the difference in percentage between two groups are shown in the table below.

Kinds of irregularities	Number of mistakes	Percentage difference
	Group 1	Group 2
Reported Speech	62	45	28%
Vocabulary	19	12	37%
Constructions `It is' / `There is'	32	17	47%
Articles	16	10	38%

The data from the table illustrate the fact that learners of the experimental group have done approximately 37% of mistakes less than the learners of the control group. This proves the fact that the presenting grammar activities, peer evaluation and clear staging of the grammar study (practice) is of great use for acquiring good grammar skills.

CONCLUSION

The present research project was an attempt to examine various types of grammar presentation and explanation activities, to reveal difficulties students have in the process of acquisition of grammar and to highlight the techniques that can eliminate these difficulties. After the investigation we have come to the following conclusions:

1. The process of forming grammar skills is a manifold process consisting of pre-learning, volume and repetition, success-orientation, heterogeneity, teacher assistance and interest. Children need grammar to be able to speak, and write in the target language. Teachers' aim is to form grammar skills and prevent children from making grammar mistakes in their speech.

2. The variety of approaches of teaching grammar allows teachers to use the appropriate methods and techniques taking into account students' age and level of language proficiency. As for example, the method and techniques the teacher should use in teaching beginners or intermediate-level is the direct method and various techniques which can develop pupils' listening comprehension and speaking.

3. We have examined two kinds of grammar skills: the reproductive and receptive grammar skills. The reproductive grammar skills give pupils an opportunity to make up their own sentences in oral and written forms in other words to communicate and the receptive grammar skills give them an opportunity to read texts or aud and understand it. To master the reproductive grammar skills one should study the basic sentences or models (grammar is presented as itself in the basic sentences), to master the receptive grammar skills one should identify and analyze the grammar item. We teach children to read by means of grammar. It reveals the relationship between the words in the given sentence.

4. We have such a conclusion that the forming of grammar skills depends on training. Training is of great importance to realize the grammar item. We must use a lot of training exercises for the assimilation of grammar. We should provide the motivation to learn English, encourage children to communicate and remember that the correction of errors in the early stages of a language course may foster the following negative aspects: children lose confidence when they have fear of making grammar mistakes; children become reluctant to take risks: they only say the information they know they can say. We should realize the importance of training exercises and the role of the individual approach to teaching the children. Besides, the teacher must have a clear idea of the grammar of the language, its structure and usage; everything he teaches must be based on it; he should always be conscious of introducing or practicing some point of grammar.

5. It is more apparent that the teaching of grammar can be supported effectively by using such resources as: songs, games, drawings, maps and charts. According to the needs of a classroom, several techniques can be integrated with the resources mentioned above. Since teaching is a developing art, which requires innovative and creative ideas to enrich its effectiveness, we must not hesitate to use such resources in our classrooms. These resources can assist our teaching of grammar while providing a relaxed atmosphere and motivate students. Such activities are student centered, hence, by using them we give a chance to our students to express themselves, enjoy themselves during learning, and use the reserves of their minds. As, it should be born in mind that all these resources require the activation of both left and right hemispheres. Thus, we let our students use their long-term memory and learn effectively during such activities. So there is an undeniable fact that if our concern is to provide a successful and beneficial teaching, we must not hesitate to use songs, poems, games, and problem solving activities, which bring the structural, pragmatic, prosodic and communicative aspects of language together, in our language classrooms.

6. The teacher should try to organize grammar workshop in the classroom, where each student will be an active participant during all stages of grammar process. Presenting grammar activities, peer evaluation and clear staging of the grammar study (practice) is of great use for acquiring good grammar skills. Thus helping to avoid difficulties that students encounter while fulfilling a grammar assignment.

7. When introducing a new grammatical structure teachers should go through the following five stages: lead-in, elicitation, explanation, accurate reproduction and immediate creativity. Various visual aids and teaching materials should be extensively utilized to facilitate the assimilation of grammar mechanism of the language studied.

8. It should be said that in teaching grammar, as well as in teaching vocabulary and pronunciation the teacher organizes learners' learning and learners are involved in the process of learning, i.e. in (1) the acquisition of information about grammar item (its form, meaning and usage), (2) drill and transformation to form grammar habits, and (3) the making use of the habits acquired in language skills (listening, speaking and reading).

This reach material can be used for deepening one's knowledge in studying methods of teaching English as a second language, and also English in general. This research will help teachers to use widely a range of different grammar activities, especially those which are not fully presented in the textbooks. This research project is quite useful and can have practical value for the interrelations among some subjects as, for example, Methods of teaching, Lexis, Grammar, and some other. A set of elaborated suggestions of this work can be used by the teachers who are interested in improving students' mastery of the language.



SUMMARY

The established objectives have been successfully fulfilled during the investigation. More than 55 works concerning the problem of teaching grammar have been analyzed. The importance of this issue is proved by the fact that many methodologists from different countries are interested in this topic and have elaborated their own recommendations and techniques of teaching grammar.

The first chapter of the research project includes the theoretical description of different approaches to teaching grammar; it outlines grammar teaching strategies suggested by different methodologists and points out a general model for introducing a new language structure.

The second chapter of the paper deals with the descriptional analyses of different grammar teaching techniques and types of exercises for the assimilation of grammar. It shows some well-developed and fascinating techniques that can be used to make a grammar lesson effective, beneficial, and interesting.

The third chapter comprises the description of the course of the experimental work in the 8^th grades and its results.

Grammar is considered by the majority of learners as one of the most difficult skills in studying foreign languages. One reason that grammar is so difficult relates to the fact that, in addition to knowledge of the appropriate pronunciation and meaning of words, one must assimilate the grammar mechanism, he must see the relation between the words in the context, and this is an obstacle for second language learners.

The experiment carried out in the lyceum has revealed the fact that the amount of difficulties students encounter while accomplishing grammar tasks can be reduced by applying some techniques and strategies.

First of all, the objectives at each stage of grammar process were set up clearly. At the presenting grammar stage students were presented the new grammar items and explained the distinction between two constructions “There is” and “It is”. They were also shown their structure, meaning and use needed for coping with challenging tasks. Students received sheets of paper with model sentences for analyzing the difference between the two constructions, which enabled them to understand better their structure, meaning and use. Grammar presentation stage helped learners to acquire the necessary grammar structure, besides to develop listening and writing skills. At practice stage students were aimed at performing some exercises to memorize the grammar focus. Students were asked to comment why this or that construction was used. This strategy makes learners more reflective, creative and meaningful because they point out the grammar rules acquired previously. Moreover, students were asked to exchange their exercise-books and check the correctness or incorrectness of their desk-mates. Peer evaluation used during the grammar practice stage is of great use. Students had the opportunity to read each other's exercise and express their opinions by suggesting some revisions and reconstructions. At the control stage students show their assignments to the rest of the class and comments about both the usage and meaning in them are elicited.

It is necessary for the teacher to create a comfortable atmosphere for the students to make them feel at ease while performing their grammar acquisition. Hence, the teacher of the English language needs: 1) knowledge of pedagogics and psychology; the nature of the learner and the nature of the learning and teaching processes; 2) knowledge of teaching methods and techniques, the best and most effective ones to use; an understanding of the purpose and aim of each technique and device he uses; 3) confidence and skill in his handling of teaching techniques.



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40. RICHARDS, J.C., ROGERS, T.S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press, 1986, pp.14-20

41. RIXON, S., How to use games in language teaching, London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 1981, pp.56-78

42. SWAN, M., SMITH, B., Learner English .A teacher's guide to interference and other problems, Cambridge, 1987, pp.63-70

43. TARONE, E., YULE, G., Focus on Language Learner, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp.74-80

44. THORNBURY, S., How to Teach Grammar, Longman, Pearson Education limited, 1999, pp.49-90

45. UR, P., A Course in Language Teaching, pp.4-17, 75-89

46. UR, P., Grammar Practice Activities, Cambridge University Press, 1988, pp.4-10

47. WRIGHT, A., Pictures for Language Learning, Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp.136-140

48. WRIGHT, A., Games for Language Learning, Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp.24-30

49. WOODS, E., LEOD, N. M., Using English Grammar: meaning and form, Cambridge, 1990, pp.33-54

50. www.slideshare.net/Ottomay/national-grammar-day-presenattion

51. www.slideshare.net/Ottomay/teaching-grammar-1279836

52. www.slideshare.net/vanyac/teaching-grammar-134752

53. www.slideshare.net/gskeesee/grammar-review-531028

54. www.englishclub.narod.ru

55. www.teachingenglish.org.uk

56. www.e.usia.gov/forum/vols/vol136/no1/p20.htm-games

57. ÐÎÃÎÂÀ, Ã. Â., Ìåòîäèêà îáó÷åíèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, Ìîñêâà, 1983, pp.149-167

58. ÑÈÍßÂÑÊÀß, Å.Â., ÂÀÑÈËÜÅÂÀ, Ì.Ì., ÊÀËÈÍÈÍÀ, Ñ.Â., Âîïðîñû ìåòîäèêè îáó÷åíèÿ èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêîì çà ðóáåæîì, Ìîñêâà, Ïðîñâåùåíèå,1978, pp.134-16



Appendix 1



Legend

moment in time	§ action that takes place once, never or several times § actions that happen one after another § actions that suddenly take place
period of time	§ action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that moment § actions taking place at the same time
Result	§ action taking place before a certain moment in time § puts emphasis on the result
Course / Duration	§ action taking place before a certain moment in time § puts emphasis on the course or duration of the action

[54]

Appendix 2 A

Use the language in this box to describe your pictures to your partners:
There is a	square circle rectangle triangle	inside the circle outside the circle	at the top at the bottom to the right to the left



1.	2.	3.	4.
5.	6.	7.	8.
9.	10.	11.	12.
		Listen to your partner describe the circles for you. Draw the picture that is being described.



Appendix 2 B

Use the language in this box to describe your pictures to your partners:
There is a	square circle rectangle triangle	inside the circle outside the circle	at the top at the bottom to the right to the left

1.	2.	3.	4.
5.	6.	7.	8.
9.	10.	11.	12.
		Listen to your partner describe the circles for you. Draw the picture that is being described.



Appendix 3

grammar english teaching

Suggestions about Teaching Grammar

1. Teach only those rules which are simple and which do not have too many exceptions.

2. Do not spend too much time on grammar points which do not appear to be very useful or important. Just make the students aware of the special features.

3. Wherever possible, teach grammar in context.

4. When presenting grammar, try to use charts, tables, diagrams, maps.

5. Avoid difficult grammatical terminology as much as possible.

6. Allow enough opportunities for practice.

7. Do not be frustrated by the students' mistakes and errors, which are inevitable in language learning.

“Research has shown that teachers who focus students' attention on form during communicative interactions are more effective than those who never focus on form.”

Spada and Lightbown, 1992

[31, pp.6-12]

Appendix 4

Rules to enhance grammatical explanations:

§ Keep your explanations brief and simple. Use the mother tongue if students cannot follow an explanation in English.

§ Use charts and other visuals whenever possible to graphically depict grammatical relationships.

§ Illustrate with clear, unambiguous examples.

§ Try to account for varying cognitive styles among your students (for example, analytical learners will have an easier time picking up on grammatical explanations than will wholistic learners).

§ Do not get yourself (and students) tied up in knots over so-called `exceptions' to rules.

§ If do not know how to explain something do not risk giving false information (that you may have to retract later, which will cause even more embarrassment); rather, tell students you will research that point and bring an answer back the next day. [7, p.352]



Appendix 5

How to present a new language

Tip 1: Set the scene and put the new language into a very clear and obvious context.

1. Use real objects or pictures, or draws objects, people or a situation on the blackboard.

2. The teacher tells the students, about a situation which demonstrates the meaning of the new language.

3. Read a text or listen to a tape which contains examples of the new language. This can be a story or a dialogue.

4.The teacher mimes (acts without speaking) an action or emotion or acts out a role play or dialogue which helps show what the new language is and when it is used.

Tip 2: Procedures: Involve the learners in building up a situation or context which makes the meaning and use of the new item as clear as possible, and which also engages the learner's interest and imagination as much as possible

1. Set the scene using one of the techniques listed in points 1 to 4 above.

2. Model the new language, saying it two or three times.

(Make the grammar clear by highlighting the key elements)

3. Ask students to repeat the new language several times out loud.

(Listen and imitate the normal pronunciation)

Appendix 5

4. Ask questions to check that students understand the meaning of the new words, structure or function.

5. Write the new language item on the blackboard, marking in the stress

6. If necessary, explain the grammar of the new language item.

(Give more examples of the new item)

7. Do not introduce new grammar and new vocabulary at the same time.

If necessary, pre-teach the vocabulary. [3, pp.38-42]

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