American economy and industry

Placing of the textile industry of the USA from the beginning of 20 centuries has undergone considerable changes. In a current of several decades the branch has in essence moved from traditional textile area - New England - to the South Atlantic states, where a cheap labour and closeness to a cotton belt of the country. After 2 world war in this area and the next Southeast centre the largest enterprises of the USA for release of synthetic fibres have been constructed practically: kapron, nylon, dacron, fibers. To the share of southern states belongs 80 % of release of cotton fabrics and fabrics on the basis of chemical fibres. The largest centres of the South are Greensboro - Winston-Salem - High Point (Northern Carolina), Charlotte (Northern Carolina), Greenville (South Carolina), Columbus (Georgia).

In clothing industry shift on the South also is swept up. To the share of the enterprises of the South (mainly small factories which are letting out inexpensive men's wear) belongs over 40 % conditionally-net production to branch. However value of the old centres of a clothing industry in the Northeast USA, despite absolute and relative decrease in output, is still great enough. One of national legislators of a fashion Los Angeles which promotion is connected with manufacture of a female dress under Hollywood "film standards" became the considerable centre last years.

The big development has received in the USA the flavoring industry. The branch share makes 12 %. The major branches of the food-processing industry of the USA concern meat, dairy, manufacture alcoholic and soft drinks, canning and flour-grinding. In connection with a rise in prices for articles of food in the USA the big attention is given to the manufacture of various sorts of substitutes of natural products, the aromatic substances added in a foodstuff. Manufacture of the frozen foodstuff (including snack, national dishes, dessert products, creams etc.) and various canned food develops.

Food-processing industry placing on country territory in a whole differs relative uniformity. Large cities, as a rule, are the leading centres of branch. However areas of concentration of the enterprises of the flour-grinding industry is in the Northwest centre and along coast of Great Lakes (the leading centres are allocated: Minneapolis - Saint Paul, Kansas City, Буффало); the meat industry - is in Chicago, Kansas City and Omaha (Nebraska); dairy and cheese-making -is in states Wisconsin and Minnesota; canning - is in California. The largest centres of manufacture of confectionery products are New York and Chicago; whisky - Louisville (Kentucky); Coca-Colas - Atlanta; beer - Saint Louis and Milwaukee.

Manufacture of cigarettes basically is concentrated within Piedmont and Kentucky. The basic centres are - Greensboro - Winston-Salem - High Point and Durham in Northern Carolina, Richmond in Virginia and Louisville in Kentucky. Release of cigars from the American tobacco concentrates in the Northeast (the basic centre - Philadelphia).

2.2 The service sector

The service sector- is the largest sector of economy of the USA. In 1997 it has given 4,43 bln. dollars, or 54 % of gross national product, and 4/5 workplaces in the country(appendix E, F). The service sector includes set of various branches and trades. A complex of business, professional and personal services - the greatest and most diverse group - includes educational and medical services, social service, hotel business, the advertising industry, management, agencies in public relations, and also the numerous enterprises of the household services given to corporations or separate citizens: laundries, dry-cleaners, the car-care centre, etc. In 1996 all this service complex has given more than 1 bln. dollars, i.e. approximately 15 % of gross national product, and in it 45 % of all labour of sector of services have been occupied. The contribution of financial and insurance institutes and real estate agencies too has made 15 % of gross national product, however in them 8 % of workers of sphere of services are occupied only. This group includes banks, loan-and-savings associations, the credit unions and other financial organisations, commodity and stock exchanges, agencies on operations with the real estate. Other largest sector of sphere of services - the enterprises of wholesale and retail trade, it includes restaurants and bars, firms of wholesale trade, shops, and companies dealing with vehicles sale. In 1996 almost 30 % of workers of sphere of service have been occupied in trade, and to their share it was approximately 1/6 costs of all made services. Workers of public sector have made 11 % of all services occupied in the sector and have made 1/8 gross national products. At last, to a share of the enterprises of transport, communication and municipal services in 1996 belonged approximately 9 % of cost of services and approximately 6,5 % of all occupied in service sphere. Automobile, railway and air transport, telecommunication companies, radio-and TV-broadcasting corporations, and also the public service enterprises are here.

Rates of growth of employment in sphere of services have surpassed all other branches and during the period with 1979 on 1995 have made 2,3 % a year that has led to creation in the country of 24 million new workplaces. Rates of growth of employment as a whole on the country for the same period have made only 1,4 % a year. As a result employment has increased in sphere of services from 70 % almost to 80 % from the general number of the working. As the wages (together with privileges) make workers of sphere of services approximately 75 % of wages on manufacture, labour outflow in the industry of service from 1979 on 1995 has led to the general decrease in a payment approximately on 10 %.

2.3 Transportation service

Transportation systems are essential for both commerce and recreation. Transportation in the United States is facilitated by road, air, rail, and water networks. The vast majority of passenger travel occurs by automobile for shorter distances, and airplane for longer distances. Most cargo travels by air (typically only for perishables and premium express shipments), boat, pipeline, truck, or railroad. The main transportation systems in the US are outlined below.

Road:

The United States relies heavily on its roads both for commercial and personal transit. Car ownership is widespread except in few of the largest cities where extensive mass transit systems offer a convenient alternative. The Eisenhower Interstate Highway System's creation in the 1950s inspired the usage of private automobiles for both long-distance trips as well as daily commutes. The system is the largest expressway system in the world, spanning a total of 75,376 km. The Interstate system is part of a larger National Highway System, comprising approximately 256,000 kilometers of roadway, a fraction of the total mileage of roads. The system serves almost all major US cities.

In addition to transportation by car, there are long-distance passenger buses that travel between major cities and stop in smaller towns along the way. Greyhound Lines is the largest intercity bus company in the United States, with routes to all parts of the continental US There are also many smaller regional bus companies. Bus travel may be of particular interest to students as it is one of the most affordable ways to travel long distances.

Air:

The US has 14,893 airports, 5,174 of which have paved runways. There is no single national airline; passenger airlines in the United States are completely privatized. The US has over 200 domestic passenger and cargo airlines and a number of international carriers. The US has 17 out of the world's 30 busiest airports for passenger travel, including the busiest, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, and it has 12 of the world's 30 busiest airports for cargo transport, including the busiest, Memphis International Airport (statistics from 2004). In addition to using air transport for passengers and cargo, private aircraft are also used for medical emergencies, government agencies, large businesses, and individual use.

Rail:

Up until the mid-twentieth century, passenger trains were a popular mode of transportation. Now, however, railways are predominantly used for freight, especially in the US, where rail systems are employed extensively for this purpose. There is approximately 240,000 km of mainline rail routes in the United States-the world's longest national railroad network (although Central European countries have the densest railways).

Water Transport:

Water transport has multiple functions. Its primary use is the transport of freight, but passenger service also connects many of the nation's islands and remote coastal areas and facilitates the crossing of lakes, rivers, and harbors. As well, fishing and pleasure boats are numerous.

Several major American seaports include New York to the east, Houston and New Orleans on the gulf coast, Los Angeles to the west. Aside from the Great Lakes, the United States has 41,009 km of navigable inland channels (rivers and canals). The interior of the U.S. has major shipping channels, via the St. Lawrence Seaway and the Mississippi River. The Erie Canal was the first water link between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic and thus allowed rapid development in agriculture and industry in the Midwest, which made New York City the economic center of the country.

Public Transit:

City and regional public transit may include bus, train, heavy and/or light rail, and underground subway systems. Hours of operation and cost vary, and a schedule (timetable) for exact times is usually available on the Internet or in the local telephone book. Taxis are also readily available in most urban areas.

Transportation Fast Facts

The first cross-US car trip left San Francisco in 1903--a time when there were no gas stations and there was less than 150 miles (240 kilometers) of paved roads between coasts.

The first Transcontinental Railroad in the US was completed in 1869, with the driving of the "last spike" at Promontory Summit, Utah.

The famous Wright brothers' first glider flight at Kitty Hawk took place in 1900, while their first successful, powered, piloted flight took place in 1903--lasting only 12 seconds.

For the last years the gain of volumes of passenger air transportations exceeded 6 % a year. The annual quantity of ordered planes thus approximately was equaled 8 % from a world civil aircraft depot. In 1998 airline all over the world have received about 940 new planes. Thus "Boeing" has put 563 planes (growth on 50 % in comparison with 1997), "Air bus" - 230 planes (growth on 46 %).

Airlines only a few will increase the quantity wide-body planes next decade. It is expected, that the volume of passenger-kilometres will grow more than on 60 % that will be reached basically at the expense of new flights. Only 8 % of this gain will be received for the account of use of liners with the big capacity. Even that modest growth in the proportional plan will be in 5 times more, than observed for last 10 years. The general demand for very big air liners will be insignificant and to concentrate in the limited number

In long-term prospect, i.e. in 1998-2017, it is expected, that volumes of world aviatransportations will annually increase by 4,9 %. Predicted growth will differ depending on concrete region as it is connected with the general rates of economic development (on the average 3 % a year). By estimations of experts, the greatest growth of gross national product will be in China where it should be observed and a considerable gain of volumes of aviatransportations.

About problems of safety aircraft technicians of company "Boeing". Concern grows In the USA against a worsening financial position of company "Boeing" quality of its production, and also the proved fears concerning company management approaches to maintenance of reliable operation of air-space technics express. In 1998 the company has put to customers 563 planes. On many of them poor quality of assemblage, wrong installation of the equipment, bad painting were marked. In wings and aileron planes the tools forgotten by workers, various extraneous subjects that have led to occurrence of emergencies, threat of a life of passengers were found out.

The greatest number of censures expresses concerning the most widespread plane Boing-737. As it was found out as a result it is unprecedented the tightened trial of accident in Pittsburg in 1994 and of some other aviation incidents with plane of this

Foreign airlines are traditionally connected by air lines with the countries of Asia, Europe and the Far East. In 1998 from airport Sea-Taco it has been sent about 50 thousand т. The international cargo, from them only 400 т. - in the countries of the North America, 22 thousand т. - in the countries of Asia and about 25 thousand т. - to Europe.

American Northwest Airlines, Alaska Airlines, United Airlines have at the airport of Seattle big enough technical services and are equipped by all necessary means of mechanisation and adaptations for technical and commercial service of air courts. The basic types of planes which are maintained by these airlines are: Boeing-747, Boeing-757, Boeing-767, А-300.

About financing of building and operation of motorways. In the USA financing of building and operation of highways with the firm covering which general extent makes almost 4 million in km. (From them only 5 % are in the federal property, and the others belong to states, counties, cities and to private persons), is carried out at two levels - federal and local. The basic act regulating these questions, the law «About federal support of highways» 1920 (in abbreviated form - «the Automobile law» is; section 23 of the Code of laws of the USA) with numerous subsequent additions and changes. The given certificate has put in pawn a basis of interaction of the authorities of various levels in this sphere on a "partnership" principle.

Responsibility in scales of all country for definition of directions of a national policy in the field of road building it is assigned to the Federal road agency which is a part the Department of transportation which in coordination with transport departments of separate states distributes the federal funds directed on financing of this branch. Direct sources of financing in which money resources accumulate, are so-called «Road trust funds» founded in 1956 the decision of the congress which has served then model for similar, but having specific features, acts of states. To an adoption of this law financing went from national both local budgets, and the size of the sums released on the given purpose annually was defined by legislators, not being in direct dependence on tax gathering from sales of the goods and the services connected with motor transport. After 1956 The financing scheme has radically changed: the specified taxes arrive not in the budget, and is direct in funds from which in the target go on financing of the corresponding road programs confirmed by the congress and Legislative Assemblies of states. For an example, in 1995 incomes federal road trust funds have made 20,9 billion dollars, from which 12,5 billion dollars were taxes from sales on gasoline, 4,7 billion - on diesel fuel, 395 million - on autotire covers, 2,9 billion - on lorries and trailers, 682 million - other taxes and 548 million - bank percent for a finding of means on accounts of banks.

About development in the USA intellectual transport systems. The large-scale program of creation of intellectual transport systems (Intelligent Transportation Systems, ITS) is prepared and is in a stage of practical realisation. To the beginning of 90th even the branched out networks of the American roads have ceased to consult about all an increasing stream of motor transport. An everyday occurrence of a steel of a stopper, degree of environmental contamination and breakdown susceptibility have increased, efficiency of transportations has decreased. To solve a problem only at the expense of escalating of rates of road building any more it was not represented possible. At the same time in the country information technologies, communication systems and the communications in many respects defining progress in all spheres of economy actively developed and took root. The idea of their use for optimisation of transport transportations also has served as an impulse to development ITS.

In september 1991 the congress of the USA has passed the law defining the purposes and problems, volumes and an order of financing of the national program of development ITS. Annual assignments for expired period have averaged 200 million dollars. ITS are considered by Americans as set of various high technologies, devices and mechanisms, concepts and management models transport streams. «System of systems» will take root within the next 15-20 years. Tens firms and corporations take part in its creation, the governments of states, federal bodies, scientific institutions.

The congress has obliged Department of Transportation to provide full compatibility and interrelation of all elements ITS in territory of the USA. For coordination of works in the given area in Department of transportation special management Joint Program Office has been formed. The basic researches of possibilities ITS are carried out, their configuration on the scale of the country is developed, made and there is in a stage of performance a program of preparation of standards, necessity of use of many progressive technologies is defined. In the near future activity mainstreams will be: practical expansion of an infrastructure national ITS, working out and release of the perspective car equipped with modern devices and safety controls, computers, a communication facility and navigating system

By means of ITS the American transport infrastructure can increase considerably throughput of already existing roads that will lead to reduction on 35 % of expenses on road building. Introduction ITS will sharply raise safety of traffic, will allow to lower quantity of failures and incidents on 17 %, to keep thousand lives, and also to prevent an annual material damage for the sum about 26 billion dollars Creation of intellectual transport systems will involve in this sphere the advanced electronic, computer and touch technologies, will lead to occurrence in the market of competitive, meeting the requirements 21 centuries of the goods and services. According to forecasts of experts, the American market ITS already now extending with fast rates, by 2015 will exceed 425 billion dollars

2.4 National communications System

The genesis of the NCS began in 1962 after the Cuban missile crisis when communications problems among the United States, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and foreign heads of state threatened to complicate the crisis further. After the crisis, President John F. Kennedy ordered an investigation of national security communications, and the National Security Council formed an interdepartmental committee to examine the communications networks and institute changes. This interdepartmental committee recommended the formation of a single unified communications system to serve the President, Department of Defense, diplomatic and intelligence activities, and civilian leaders. Consequently, in order to provide better communications support to critical Government functions during emergencies, President Kennedy established the National Communications System by a Presidential Memorandum on August 21, 1963. The NCS mandate included linking, improving, and extending the communications facilities and components of various Federal agencies, focusing on interconnectivity and survivability.

On April 3, 1984, President Ronald Reagan signed Executive Order (E.O.) 12472 which broadened the NCS' national security and emergency preparedness (NS/EP) capabilities and superseded President Kennedy's original 1963 memorandum. The NCS expanded from its original six members to an interagency group of 23 Federal departments and agencies, and began coordinating and planning NS/EP telecommunications to support crises and disasters.

With the addition of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence on September 30, 2007, the NCS membership currently stands at 24 members.

Each NCS member organization is represented on the NCS through the Committee of Principals -- and its subordinate Council of Representatives. The COP, formed as a result of Executive Order 12472, provides advice and recommendations to the NCS and the National Security Council through the President's Critical Infrastructure Protection Board on NS/EP telecommunications and its ties to other critical infrastructures. The NCS also participates in joint industry-Government planning through its work with the President's National Security Telecommunications Advisory Committee, with the NCS's National Coordinating Center for Telecommunications and the NCC's subordinate Information Sharing and Analysis Center .

After nearly 40 years with the Secretary of Defense serving as its Executive Agent, President George W. Bush transferred the National Communications System to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The NCS was one of 22 Federal agencies transferred to the Department on March 1, 2003, in accordance with Executive Order 13286. A revised Executive Order 12472 reflects the changes of E.O. 13286. On November 15, 2005, the NCS became part of the Department's Directorate for Preparedness after nearly two years under the Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate. In March 2007 the NCS became an entity of the National Protection and Programs Directorate. Currently, the Department of Homeland Security Under Secretary for National Protection and Programs Directorate serves as the NCS Manager.

In fulfillment of their mission to enable emergency communications, the NCS has created a number of different services.

NS/EP Priority Telecommunications

Government Emergency Telecommunications Service - provides emergency access and priority processing in the local and long distance segments of the public switched wireline network. Used in an emergency or crisis situation during which the probability of completing a call over normal or other alternate telecommunication means has significantly decreased.

Telecommunications Service Priority - provides service vendors with a Federal Communications Commission mandate for prioritizing service requests by identifying those services critical to NS/EP. A telecommunications service with a TSP assignment is assured of receiving full attention by the service vendor before a non-TSP service.

Wireless Priority Service - provides priority cellular network access. The Wireless Priority Service was approved by the FCC for NS/EP requirements on a call-by-call priority basis. The NCS executes the program on behalf of the Executive Office of the President. Only individuals in NS/EP key leadership positions are authorized use of Wireless Priority Service.

National Coordinating Center (NCC) for Telecommunications

Alerting and Coordination Network - The Alerting and Coordination Network provides a stable emergency voice communications network connecting telecommunications service providers' Emergency Operations Centers and Network Operations Centers to support national security and emergency preparedness telecommunications network restoration coordination, transmission of telecommunications requirements and priorities, and incident reporting when the Public Switched Network is inoperable, stressed or congested. It is engineered to provide a reliable and survivable network capability, and, as such, has no logical dependency on the PSN. As a result, if the PSN suffers disruptions, the Alerting and Coordination Network will not be affected.

Shared Resources High Frequency Radio Program (SHARES) - The SHARES HF Radio Program brings together the assets of over 1,000 HF radio stations worldwide to voluntarily pass emergency messages when normal communications are destroyed or unavailable. SHARES uses common radio operating and message formatting procedures and more than 250 designated frequencies. Participation in SHARES is open to all Federal departments and agencies and their designated affiliates on a voluntary basis. More than 90 Federal, state, and industry organizations currently contribute resources throughout the United States and in 26 countries and U.S. possessions

Telecom ISAC - In January 2000, the National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and Counterterrorism designated the NCC-ISAC as the ISAC for telecommunications. On March 1, 2000, the NCC-ISAC commenced operations. The initial NCC-ISAC membership is based on NCC membership, which is evolving to reflect a broader base of technologies comprising the telecommunications infrastructure. NCC-ISAC will support the mission assigned by Executive Order 12472 and the national critical infrastructure protection goals of government and industry. The NCC-ISAC will facilitate voluntary collaboration and information sharing among its participants gathering information on vulnerabilities, threats, intrusions, and anomalies from telecommunications industry, government, and other sources. The NCC-ISAC will analyze the data with the goal of averting or mitigating impact upon the telecommunications infrastructure. Additionally, data will be used to establish baseline statistics and patterns and maintained to provide a library of historical data. Results will be sanitized and disseminated in accordance with sharing agreements established for that purpose by the NCC-ISAC participants.

Emergency Response Training (ERT)

Planning, Training, and Exercise Support - their mission is to ensure NCS readiness, enhance partnerships within government and industry, coordinate telecommunications operational planning among NCS elements, develop emergency response requirements, and to provide skilled civilians and reservists during crises and emergencies.

Individual Mobilization Augmentee - The National Communications System Augmentee Program was established in 1988 to provide a cadre of skilled civilian and military reservists to enhance the efforts of the Office of the Manager, NCS, the National Coordinating Center for Telecommunications, and NCS Regional Managers during national crises and emergencies. The NCS Augmentee Program consists of two components: the civilian members of the National Defense Executive Reserve (NDER) and the U.S. Army reservists participating in the Individual Mobilization Augmentee Program.

Industry of communications - is the largest employer in a private sector of the United States, and a news media is its big component. Manufacture and information distribution -is the developing business in the USA.

In the course of the development this industry underwent changes in various aspects. For last years in the American journalism there was a fundamental transformation: partially as a result of occurrence of new technologies, no less than owing to changes in a society which mirror it is. Anything surprising in it is not present, as changes in itself - a characteristic sign of the American culture. The American information industry - irrespective of, whether takes it on itself functions of an observer or not - quite issued part of this culture, no less than democratic political system of the country and its free market economy.

Being protected from intervention of the state of short 200-year-old prescription by line of the American Constitution, a press was caused to be some kind of "inspector" of an official life, the registrar of events occurring in a society and even the informal arbitrator of public behavior. The information industry is also the big business in the USA. Annually only from advertising daily newspapers receive about 32 billion dollars of profit. The cumulative circulation of magazines - the last more than 11 thousand - exceeds number of the Americans reading them. Each family has at least three radio receivers, and more than 95 % - TVs.

Naturally, the press not always was so mass. Having arisen in XVIII century, the American press was the low-power tool of intellectual elite and the impartial participant of a party policy. It was the pamphlet press, руководимая colonial postmasters and self-confident printers. And only in the next century, walking in step with desires, dynamism and variety of the country, the American press was transformed in fair, non-ideological tool of communications.

For the last two centuries the American press has reached two fundamental constants: independence of the power and confidence necessary for a financial survival, that the society if does not approve, accepts it.

Mass-media of the USA have some general characteristic features. The most important of them:

· The American information industry is a business

· The industry considers itself as the representative of interests of a society

· Activity of the information industry, practically, is not regulated

· There is no universal definition, that such news

· Leading mass-media are out of ideology

· The American press is traditionally focused on a local audience

The industry of the American printing and electronic mass-media is, basically, the enterprises, which pursue the aim of reception of profit and which to survive, are obliged to be financially safe. - it is not enough subsidised mass-media (less than 20 % - electronic and less than 1 % - printing). The profit volume - about 75 % - basically, depends on receipts from commercial.

Owners/publishers of newspapers - more often businessmen, rather than journalists, and the editor, as a rule, watches that the newspaper did not recede from the basic function - to inform a society. The publisher defining in last instance that should be production, can and not want to give publicity to the information undesirable to it whereas the editor usually is guided by a principle: “If it is news - promulgate it.” And as interests of business above all, the publisher leaves for the editor the full right most to define the information policy.

One of ways with which help the information part of the industry is protected from able to arise because of profit of conflicts, consists in carrying out of accurate border between department of business and department of news ("church" and "state" as name some these relations) that one did not influence another. However last years this isolation a little weakened: newspapers, news magazines and broadcasting news programs have strengthened struggle for to gain more “the market area”.

The abundance of mass media and occurrence in advertisers of new ways of an exit on the consumer has toughened a competition among mass-media for "advertising" dollar. According to critics, this rivalry looks like conniving to desires and lewd tastes of public, rather than service to its interests more likely. Supporters of a similar policy say that the most effective way of service to a society - attraction of attention of its each member to the market, and a press role not in giving ready recipes or to read lectures of the audience.

This new tendency of "service to the consumer” is caused by occurrence of the group property and decrease in a competition among local newspapers. As a result the industry became more homogeneous. The majority of newspapers and local broadcasting stations “family property” has been got by large media conglomerates that has adversely affected their individuality. The similar tendency also is characteristic for the industries in another spheres.

It at all does not mean, that the group property and a pursuit of profit essentially harm to journalism. Strangely enough, but some of a profitable news media are the best as use growing incomes on financing of better illumination.

Mass media, as well as other open information systems, continually accuse - and these charges are difficult for denying - that they pursue sensation if only “to sell the newspaper”. However it is necessary to notice, that the American journalist the profit of the employer worries at all: to get on the front page - yes, but how to sell the newspaper - is not present, it not its problem. And the maintenance of columns of news of modern newspapers entirely reflects the point of view of journalists, instead of businessmen.

The information industry considers itself and as business, and as the representative of interests of a society.

Nevertheless “the right of a society the nobility” remains a corner stone of the American free press and defines character of its behaviour, in particular in relations with the power. One consider these relations "hostile". Others are not so categorical: mass-media act only in a role of the observer, but not the opponent.

These are relations at which officials try or to give the version about events, or to avoid publicity whereas the press tries to discover errors and struggles against attempts to hide the information. Under the pressure of the press the "transparent" laws which have obliged the government to spend public meetings have been passed. There is also a federal Certificate about the information freedom, giving to citizens - usually it is journalists - access to official reports and the documents which are not falling under a security classification.

In other words, the American press is happy with the role of "a sentry dog of a society”. Force which it has got as a result of this role chosen by it, has granted to it the right is honourable to be called as "the fourth power” - after three other official branches.

Protected by the Constitution, the American news media uses the immunity given by it from reprisals from the state. For example, it is very difficult to official to win against mass-media process about defamation as courts are guided by a principle according to which in democratic system activity of civil servants is opened and accountable to a society. The American journalists have won also against the state many battles, protecting confidentiality of a source of the information, but this war periodically renews.

The American mass-media mostly are vulnerable from citizens, whose right to a private life enters into direct confrontation with “the right of a society the nobility”. In the USA the slander - is faster civil, rather than criminal infringement, however a large quantity of decisions on monetary indemnifications and the fine which have been taken out by courts for last years, according to many in the most information industry, "have cooled" a journalistic heat.

To whom Americans trust more: to the press or the government? Answers to this question vary depending on time and circumstances. In the early seventies, after Watergates scandal, a press revelled in high level of public trust. However illumination of other scandal which has led to refusal of one of senators from promotion of the nominee on a post of the president during campaign 1988 by it, has caused the sharp criticism: the press accused of infringement of all borders of good taste and intrusion into a private life.

The American information industry and trade of the journalist are not same self-regulated as, for example, trades of the lawyer or the physician. The journalism does not demand from those who is engaged in it, to correspond to the minimum standards, does not give out and does not cancel the license and does not regulate professional norms. More likely, each edition or journalistic association adheres to own codes and standards.

Unlike printing mass-media, for activity of electronic media in the USA is required the state (federal) license as the quantity of radio waves is limited, and they are considered as a public property. Though guarantees of protection against political discrimination in the course of licensing are developed, nevertheless it is possible to result some examples of obvious display of ideological or political predilection at delivery or cancellation of licenses. The state decisions on announcement licensing, first of all, pursue the aim to provide a competition and a variety.

The main feature of modern American journalism - accent on unusual - is expressed in saying: “If the dog has bitten the man it is not news if the man has bitten a dog that is news.” On the one hand, people want news to entertain or raise; with another - they revolt, that “the usual life” is ignored.

But most of all, perhaps, the American journalism is proud of the investigation materials which main objective - to expose abusing the power. The Pulittserovsky award - the most prestigious in the American journalism - is annually awarded for the best investigation and service to a society. Last year's business circles even more often get under a press sight (though till now the state was its basic target) to get access to the commercial information, as a rule, difficultly enough.

Throughout this century leading American mass-media basically remained out of ideology. Only small part многотиражных newspapers, magazines or the broadcasting companies belongs to the political organisations, parties or movements.

Traditionally in the USA the state has no relation to information business. The unique media belonging and supervised by the state are the stations broadcasting for limits of the country, such as “the Voice of America” and radio "Freedom". The law forbids them to broadcast within the United States and consequently the majority of Americans has about their rather vague idea.

In the USA public the TV and radio are partially subsidised with the state, however they are guaranteed against intervention from the authorities. In practice news programs of a public announcement in большей to a measure are incited against истэблишмента, than their analogues in the commercial companies and consequently in the opinion of a society look more critical in relation to the state.

The American press always was more local, rather than regional or national. In spite of the fact that with the advent of new technologies of border of its distribution were considerably moved apart, media of the USA still focus attention to needs and interests of spectators, listeners and the readers who are in immediate proximity. It speaks not only the weighty economic reasons, but also the American provincialism.

2.5 Agriculture in the USA

Almost 21mln.people or about 17 % of all population works in the agriculture of USA. Nearly 3 million independent farms deliver feed products to the American consumers. The area of an average farm in the USA makes about 400 acres. In 1984 there were more than 2.3 million farms in the country. However, the very large farms -those with 1000 acres and more account for more than 40% of farm acreage. The largest manufacturers of grains making up 2,3% of total of farms, produce about 50 % of wheat in the country. Similarly, the largest 2 % of the manufacturers of chickens - broilers own 70 % of market sales(appendix G).

There are therefore some concentrations of agricultural production in hands of the largest manufacturers in the USA. But even largest agricultural manufacturers accept the established prices for production.

For example, 27000 independent firms represent 2 % of the manufacturers of grain, which make up 50 % of grain production in the USA. The new firms can also penetrate into the majority of agricultural branches with relative ease. There are special branches - exceptions. For example, there have been state regulation that have limited for many years the number of tobacco producers. However, even domestic manufacturer, who are protected against entry must compete for sales to the foreign manufacturers in the export markets.

State tax regulation plays important role in encouraging of farm development in USA. Since 1988 the tax rates on profit in agriculture have been established at a rate of 15 and 28% whereas earlier they ranged from 11 up to 50 % with the intermediate rates. Farms with the income up to 50000 dollars pay tax at the 15 % rate, and every next 25000 dollars at - 28% rate. Since 1989 the size of the tax-free profit has increased up to 2000, and since 1990 - up to 5000 dollars.

Calculation of surtax in USA agro industrial complex has a number of peculiarities, each of which can represent a tax privilege. The USA tax laws gives the farmers the right to subtract the costs connected with some works in agriculture and cattle breeding from the tax paid. Work on soil preservation, water resources protection, soil preparation for farming are of this kind. The tax discounts works for the incomes and losses suffered by the farmers in connection with the sale of cattle or forages. These losses are subtracted from the farmer's charges and the more favorable taxation mode is used for profit, than for income taxation. The farmers, who are engaged in cattle feeding use a tax privilege as a delay of income getting, that is all expenses are estimated per one year, and all incomes on his (its) realization the next year. Besides the farmers have the right to apply methods of accelerated amortization of agricultural machines and equipment on higher rates. It allows them to considerably reduce the sizes of the taxed income, which is to pay the taxes on the lower rates. As a result, the more machines, equipment, the farmer gets, the less taxes he pays this year and in the following period of amortization. The farmers are given alternative to use new amortization rules to reduce the taxed income or to make allocation by equal shares for 3-45 years depending on the kind of property.

The tax rules for corporations limit the sizes of the allowed allocation from the taxed income connected with expenses for fodder, seeds and fertilizer. The farmer corporation can receive the right for discounts only after actual complete consumption of materials.

The special tax privileges are given to farmer cooperative societies. Thus, fruit growing cooperative societies, marketing, and also those purchasing farm machines are released from surtax payment.

One of major functions of tax privileges in agriculture is to stimulate scientific and technical development, accelerate realization of technical novelties, which, as a rule, require large additional capital investments.

To stimulate investments of the farmer capital in technical innovations the special conditions of the taxation are provided these tax laws:

· Establishment of the tax discounts on the investments gain;

· Budget compensation for tax payments on investment gain;

· Prolongation of tax payments and capital investment gain for the period

· of end of investment process completion.

Farmer has the right to take advantage of one of the favorable taxation terms, if he introduces innovations, which are found in the state or regional agrarian programs. The farmers participating in the state agrarian programs have the right to detain tax payment capital investments gain as long as the investment process is completed. The tax volume decreases by inflation, and the sum of the tax is distributed per years in regular intervals.

The state tax regulation in the USA enables the farmers of the advanced countries to change the size tax volume at the expense of use of various tax privileges and discounts. The numerous tax privileges reduce fiscal functions of taxation system in agrarian sector to a minimum level.

The main role in belongs to the agrarian legislation. The acts determine the basic forms and methods of state influence on agriculture. In recent years the role of budget assignments for support of the prices on agricultural production and incomes of the farmers, as well for regulation of market structure of agricultural production and foodstuffs has increased. Organization of Economic Assistance to Development (ОEAD) estimates that the USA farmers received 22 milliards dollars for financial support.

Specific feature of financing of USA economy is that the means from the federal budget are primary allocated for the target programs having national importance. So, two programs work in agroindustrial complex at the federal level: "Stabilization of the Incomes" and "science and scientific service". Besides more than 10 interbranch target programs of national importance providing interests of an agriculture and farmers work at a federal level. There are soil conservation and land withdrawal program, food help to needy population, marketing and inspection, social development of rural areas. The budget means distributed according with these programs are summarized and allocated to the branch federal budget of the USA agriculture. Its basic part (more than 80 %) is supervised by the US

Ministry of agriculture through good-credit corporation (GCC) and other financial-credit bodies. The rest of 20 % of means are distributed through state and local management bodies. Of all US budget charges about 60 % is necessary for realization of farmer income stabilization program and social - charitable support of needy farmers, almost 10 % is distributed for the programs development village at the state and regional level, about 5 % -- for scientific researches and scientific service, 25 % -- for social and native-protective purposes. Thus, 3/4 of budget assignments allocated to US agriculture are spent for farm production regulation and 1/4 for social purposes.

This system of federal budget distribution allow to regulate farm production, through the prices, loans, credits and grants. The target program "Stabilization Of the Incomes " is subdivided into 3 large programs: " Prices and Incomes Support ", " Crop Insurance ". " The Farm Credit ".

The direct gratuitous payments from the federal budget are very important and have great influence over the farmers. The grants are powerful economic stimulus of involving farmers in realization of the state programs of farm regulation. The farmers, who carry out the taken obligations on realization of the state agrarian programs have right to get them, as well as loans.

The grants use stimulates farmers to intensify farm production in case the sowing areas are reduced permanent income even due to the system of compensatory payments from the federal budget farmers are ensured in permanent income even if the situation is not favorable.

The US agricultural policies provide minimal and steady prices for agricultural products. The price support frequently results in huge surpluses of agricultural products, which authorities are compelled to buy and to keep prices from sharp fall. Agricultural price support, alongside with other policies inducing farmers to keep their land idle have also brought contributed in the prices paid by the American consumers to subsidize the farmers.

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