Territorial varieties of English pronunciation

Functional stilistics and dialectolodgy. The specific fiatures and dialects. General notions of British dialects. Local varieties on the British isles. Social variation. Territorial varieties of the english pronunciation. Welsh english. Scottish english.

Рубрика Иностранные языки и языкознание
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buck [bлk] [buk]

Another well-known feature which distinguishes northern and southern accents concerns the vowels [ж] and [a:].

Before the voiceless fricatives [f, и, s] and certain consonant clusters containing initial [n] or [m], [ж] is pronounced in the north instead of [a:].

South North

path [pa:и] [pжи]

dance [da:ns] [dжns]

Note: Speakers with more strongly regional southern sub­standard accents may not have the contrast or, at most, have a contrast that is variable.

In the south, however, [ж] is often pronounced as [a:]:

RP South

bad [bжd] [ba:d]

One more major north -- south differentiating feature involves the final [i:] like in words city, money, etc. In the north of England they have [э]. In the south of England these words are pronounced with [i:], e.g.

South North

city ['sэti:] [sэtэ]

money ['mлni:] ['monэ]

In consonants

It has been mentioned above that some English accents are "rhotic" or "r-full" and other are non-rhotic or "r-less". Rhotic accents are those which actually pronounce [r], corresponding to orthographic "r" in words like bar and farm. This [r] sound is post-vocalic and is most often heard in Scotland, Ireland and in the southwest of England.

In most regional accents the glottal stop is more widely used than in RP. In some areas, especially the north-east of England, East Anglia and Northern Ireland, the glottal stop may also be pronounced simultaneously with the voiceless [p, t, k], most strikingly between vowels: pity ['pit?i:].

Many non-RP speakers use [n] in the suffix "-ing" instead of [?]; sitting ['sэtэn]. In an area of western central England which includes Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool they pronounce [?g]: singer ['sэ?g?], wing [wэ?g].

In most accents [j] is dropped after [t, s]: student ['stu:d?nt], suit [su:t]. In parts of the north the change has progressed a good deal further, it has been lost after [и]: enthusiasm [?n'иu:zэ?zm].

In large areas of eastern England [j] is lost after every consonant. In London [j] is lost after [n, t, d]: news [nu:z], tune [tu:n]./22/

Southern English Accents

We now turn to an examination of regional non-RP accents of England and we shall first give a brief outline of the group of Southern accents.

As was stated above, educated Southern speech is very much near-RP accent whereas non-standard accents are very much near Cockney. Therefore we shall focus our attention on the rather detailed description of uneducated London accent -- Cockney.

Cockney accent. It has been long established that Cockney is a social accent -- the speech of working-class areas of the Greater London. Here are some pronunciation peculiarities of it.

In vowels

1. [л] is realized as [жэ]: blood [blлd] -- [blжэd];

2. [ж] is realized as [е] or [еэ]: bag [bжg] -- [bеg], [bжэg];

3. [э] in word-final position sounds as [i:]: city ['sэtэ] -- ['sэti:];

4. when [o:] is non-final, its realization is much closer, it sounds like [o:]: pause [po:z] -- [po:z]; when it is final, it is pronounced as [o:?]: paw [po:] -- [po:?];

5. the diphthong [eэ] is realized as [жэ] or [aэ]: lady ['leэdi:] -- ['lжэdi:], ['laэdi:]

6. RP [з] sounds as [жu]: soaked [sзukt] -- [sжukt];

7. RP [au] may be [ж?]: now [nau] -- [nж?].

In consonants

1. [h] in unstressed position is almost invariably absent;

2. [?] is widely spread in Cockney speech: paper ['pжi?p?], butterfly [`bл??flaэ];

3. The contrast between [и] and [f] is completely lost: thin [fin], booth [bu:f];

4. The contrast between [р] and [v] is occasionally lost: weather ['wev?];

5. when [р] occurs initially it is either dropped or replaced by [d]: this [dis], them [(d)?m];

6. [1] is realized as a vowel when it precedes a consonant and follows a vowel, or when it is syllabic: milk [mэvk], table [teэbv]; when the preceding vowel is [o:], [1] may disappear completely;

7. [?] is replaced by [n] in word-final position: dancing ['da:nsэn] or it may be pronounced as [э?k] in something, anything, nothing: ['nлfэ?kJ;

8. [p, t, k] are heavily aspirated, more so than in RP;

9. [t] is affricated, [s] is heard before the vowel: top [tsop]./22/

Northern and Midland Accents

Midland accents, Yorkshire, for example, West Midland and North-West accents have very much in common with Northern ones. Therefore they are combined in this book into one group; peculiar realization of vowels and consonants will be marked, of course, when each subgroup is described separately.

The counties of northern England are not far from the Scottish border, so the influence of Scotch accent is noticeable, though there are of course many features of pronunciation characteristic only of northern English regions. The most typical representative of the speech of this area is Newcastle accent. It differs from RP in the following:

In vowels

1. RP [л] is realized as [u]: love [lлv] -- [luv];

2. RP final [э] sounds like [i:]: city ['siti] -- ['siti:];

3. words like dance, chance which in RP have [a:] are pronounced with [ж]: [dжns], [t?жns];

4. [eэ], [зu] are either monophthongs, or much narrower diphthongs than the ones in the south of England, or they may even sound as opening diphthongs [эe], [uo]: bay [be:], [bэe], plate [ple:t], [plэet], boat [bo:t], [buot];

5. words that have "al" in spelling -- talk, call, all, are pro­nounced with [a]: [ta:k], [ka:l], [a:l];

6. RP words with [з:] are pronounced with [o:] in a broad Tyneside accent: first [fo:st], shirt [?o:t]; so first, forced; shirt, short are homonyms;

7. [aэ] is [е]: right [rеэt];

8. words which in RP have [au] may have [u:], e.g. about ['?bu:t].

In consonants

1. [1] is clear in all environments;

2. [h] is usually present in all positions;

3. -ing is [эn]: shilling ['?эlэn];

4. [p, t, k] between vowels are accompanied by glottal stop [?]

5. in parts of Northumberland and Durham [r] may be uvular (in its production the tongue and the uvular, not the tongue and the alveolar ridge take part)./22/

Yorkshire accents.

Yorkshire and Bradford accents are identical with northern vowel features in points 1, 3, 4 (only many speakers pronounce words which have "ow", "ou" in spelling with [зu]: know [nзu]); with northern consonant features in point 3. /22/

2.2 WELSH ENGLISH

As everyone probably knows Wales is a bilingual area. This speech situation in linguistics is known as exoglossic. In Wales English dominates over Welsh in urban areas, in the west and north-west of the country the balance being in favour of Welsh, where English is learnt at schools as a second language. At the moment nationalistic feelings are rather strong in Wales and we are witnessing a movement in favour of the revival of the Welsh language and its spread in all areas of Wales.

However, Welsh English, at the level of educated speech and writing is not much different from that of English English. Most differences are found at the level of more localized dialects.

The principal phonological differences between WE and RP are the following:

In vowels

1. The distribution of [ж] and [a:] is as in the north of England. Last, dance, chance, etc. tend to have [ж] rather than [a:].

2. unstressed orthographic "a" tends to be [ж] rather than [a:], e.g.: sofa ['so:fж];

3. there is no contrast between [л] and [?]: rubber ['r?b?];

4. [э] at the end is a long vowel: city ['sэti];

5. in words like tune, few, used we find [iu] rather than [ju:]: tune [tiun];

6. [eэ], [зu] may become monophthongs: bake [bе:k], boat [bo:t];

7. the vowel [з:] as in girl is produced with rounded lips approaching [o:];

8. the vowels [э?], [u?] do not occur in many variants of Welsh English: fear is [fi:j?], poor is ['pu:w?].

In consonants

1. W. E. is non-rhotic, [r] is a tap, or it is also called a flapped [r]. Intrusive and linking [r] do occur.

2. Consonants in intervocalic position, particularly when the preceding vowel is short are doubled: city ['sitti:].

3. Voiceless plosives tend to be strongly aspirated: in word final position they are generally released and without glottalization, e.g. pit [phэth].

4. [1] is clear in all positions.

5. Intonation in Welsh English is very much influenced by the Welsh language./22/

2.3 SCOTTISH ENGLISH

We must first make clear that the status of Scottish English is still debated. Some linguists say that it is a national variant. Others say that it is a dialect.

English has been spoken in Scotland for as long as it has been spoken in England. In the Highlands and Islands of northern and western Scotland, however, Gaelic is still the native language of thousands of speakers from these regions. A standardized form of this language, known as Scots, was used at the court and in literature until the Reformation. Then it was gradually replaced by English. Incidentally a number of writers and poets of the likes of R. Bums retained their native language.

Nowadays educated Scottish people speak a form of Scottish Standard English which grammatically and lexically is not different from English used elsewhere, although with an obvious Scottish accent. We must admit, however, that non-standard dialects of Scotland still resemble Scots and in many respects are radically different from most other varieties of English. It is very difficult to understand them for students who learn RP.

At the moment there is currently a strong movement in Scotland for the revival of Scots. Nevertheless Scottish Standard English is still more prestigeous and we concentrate on Scottish English as used and spoken by educated urban Scots.

As for the status of Scottish English, in this book it will be treated as a dialect though it is fair to say that there is much in favour of calling it a national variant of English.

Vowels

1. Since Sc. Eng. is rhotic, i.e. it preserves post-vocalic [r], vowels such as RP [э?], [з:], [е?], [u?] do not occur:

RP Sc. Eng.

beer [bэ?] [bэr]

bird [bз:d] [bэrd]

hurt [hз:t] [hлrt]

bard [ba:d] [ba:rd]

moor [mu?] [mur]

2. Length is not a distinctive feature of Scottish vowels. So pairs like pool -- pull, cot --caught are not distinguished. It should be noted, however, that vowels are longer in final stressed open syllables than elsewhere.

3. Monophthongs are pure, there is no trace of diphthongization with the exceptions of [aэ -- еэ], [au -- еu] and [oэ].

4. The RP [ж -- a:(a)] distinction doesn't exist: hat [hat], dance [dans],

5. [э], [u], [л], [?] may be central.

6. In non-standard Sc. Eng. accent [u:] often occurs when RP has [au]: house [haus -- hu:s]

7. It is interesting to mention that [o] and [зu] may be not contrasted:

socks [soks] not [not]

soaks [soks] note [not]

8. In very many regional accents do, to are pronounced as [d?], [t?].

9. In some accents words such as arm, after, grass may have [е] rather than [a]: after ['еft?].

Consonants

1. Sc. Eng. consistently preserves a distinction between [м] and [w]: which [мэt?] -- witch [мэt?].

2. Initial [p, t, k] are usually non-aspirated.

3. [r] is most usually a flap.

4. Non-initial [t] is often realized as glottal stop [?].

5. [і] is dark in all positions.

6. The velar fricative [x] occurs in a number of words: loch [lox].

7. -ing is [эn].

8. [h] is present.

9. A specific Scottish feature is the pronunciation of [иr] as [?]: through [?ru:].

Non-systematic Differences

Some words have pronunciation distinctively different from RP

length

raspberry

realise

though

tortoise

RP

[le?и]

['ra:zbrэ]

['rэ?laэz]

[рзu]

['to:t?s|

Sc. Eng.

[le?и]

['ra:sbеrэ]

['rэлlaэz)

[иo:]

['to:rtoэz]

2.4 NORTHERN IRELAND ENGLISH

It should be stated first of all that English pronunciation standards in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Eire are different. The explanation lies in history.

In the Middle Ages almost the whole of Ireland was Irish speaking. Nowadays, however, native speakers of Irish are few in number and are confined to rural areas even though Irish is the official language of Ireland and is taught in schools. The English language in Southern Ireland was originally introduced from the West and West Midlands of England and still shows signs of this today. This kind of English has spread to cover most of the Irish Republic. Naturally the pronunciation of these areas retains features of western parts of England.

The English of northern parts of the island with its centre in Belfast has its roots in Scotland, as large numbers of settlers came to this part from the south-west of Scotland from the seventeenth century onwards. Now speaking about Northern Ireland, it is true to say that English here is not homogeneous. Areas of the far north are heavily Scots-influenced. Other parts are marked by less heavily Scots-influenced varieties of English. It is, of course, obvious that the language distinction is not coterminous with the political division of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, some areas of the Republic, Donegal, for instance, speak N. Ir. Eng. (Northern Ireland English), while some of the Northern provinces speak S. Ir. Eng. (Southern Ireland English).

In this chapter we shall deal with Northern Ireland English pronunciation.

Vowels

The vowel system is similar to that of Scottish accents, post-vocalic retroflex frictionless sonorant [r] being used as in Scotland.

[э]: pit [pэt], fir [fir], bird [bэrd];

[i:]: bee [bi:], beer [bi:r];

[e]: pet [pet], bed [bed];

[е]: bay [bе], bear [bеr];

[л]: but [bлt];

[a]: pat [pat], bard [bard];

[u]: put [put], boot [but], pull [pul];

[o]: boat [bot], board [bord];

[o:]: paw [po:], doll [do:l];

[o]: cot [kot];

[ai]: buy [baэ], tide [taэd];

[au]: bout [baut];

[oэ]: boy [boэ].

The actual realization of a vowel may vary considerably according to the following phoneme:

1. in words like bay, say the vowel is a monophthong [е], preconsonantally it may be a diphthong of the type [е? -- э?]: gate [gэ?t];

2. [э], [u] are fairly central;

3. [o:] and [o] contrast only before [p, t, k];

4. [aэ], [au] are very variable;

5. realization of [a:] may vary considerably.

Consonants

1. [1] is mainly clear;

2. intervocalic [t] is often a voiced flap [d]: city ['sэdi:];

3. between vowels [р] may be lost: mother ['mo:?r];

4. [h] is present./22/

2.5 AMERICAN-BASED PRONUNCIATION STANDARDS OF ENGLISH

The American variant of English has been very thoroughly described by many prominent scholars both in this country and in the USA. In this book, however, we shall try to follow the conception introduced by A.D.Shweitzer in his sociolinguistic approach to the treatment of contemporary speech situation in America.

The sociolinguistic situation in the United States is very complicated. It is moulded by certain linguistic, cultural, historic, demographic, geographic, political and other factors.

Generally speaking, the situation in the USA may be characterized as exoglossic, i.e. having several languages on the same territory, the balance being in favour of American English.

It is true, of course, that the formation of the American Standard underwent the influence of minorities languages, but its starting point was the English language of the early 17th century. However, time has passed, American English has drifted considerably from English English though as yet not enough to give us ground to speak of two different languages. Thus we speak of the national variant of English in America.

American English shows a lesser degree of dialect than British English due to some historical factors: the existence of Standard English when first English settlers came to America, the high mobility of population, internal migrations of different communities and so on. As regards pronunciation, however, it is not at all homogeneous. There are certain varieties of educated American speech. In the USA three main types of cultivated speech are recognized: the Eastern type, the Southern type and Western or General American.

1. The Eastern type is spoken in New England, and in New York city. It bears a remarkable resemblance to Southern English, though there are, of course, some slight differences.

2. The Southern type is used in the South and South-East of the USA. It possesses a striking distinctive feature -- vowel drawl, which is a specific way of pronouncing vowels, consisting in the diphthongization and even triphthongization of some pure vowels and monophthongization of some diphthongs at the expense of prolonging ("drawling") their nuclei and dropping the glides.

3. The third type of educated American speech is General American (GA), also known as Northern American or Western American spoken in the central Atlantic States: New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin and others. GA pronunciation is known to be the pronunciation standard of the USA. There are some reasons for it. GA is the form of speech used by the radio and television. It is mostly used in scientific, cultural and business intercourse. Also in two important business centres -- New York and St. Louis -- GA is the prevailing form of speech and pronunciation, though New York is situated within the territory where Eastern American is spoken, and St. Louis is within the region of Southern American. In this chapter we shall give an outline of GA accent. We will then point to differences between this accent and RP.

Vowels

1. There is no strict division of vowels into long and short in GA, though some American phoneticians suggest that certain GA vowels are tense and likely to be accompanied by relative length: [i] in seat, [u:] in pool.

They also admit that a slight rise in tongue position during the pronunciation of tense vowels leads to a diphthongal quality of tense vowels which contrasts to a monophthongal quality of lax vowels.

2. Classification of vowels according to the stability of articulation is the most controversial subject in GA. Some diphthongs are treated in GA as biphonemic combinations. The inventory of GA diphthongs varies from three to twelve phonemes. Following D.A.Shakhbagova we distinguish here five diphthongs in GA: [eэ], [aэ], [oэ], [au], [ou].

3. Another very important feature that causes different interpretations of diphthongs and vowel length in GA is the pronunciation of [r] sound between a vowel and a consonant or between a vowel and a silence: turn [tз:rn], bird [bз:rd], star [sta:r].

It has been estimated that 2/3 of American population pronounce [r] and 1/3 omit it. Thus GA is rhotic in words like far, core, etc. (when [r] follows the vowels and ends the word), this sound is consonantal and non-syllabic according to Ch. Thomas. It involves the characteristic hindering of the free flow of breath which we associate with consonants. The sound [r] in far closes the syllable more definitely than in British Received Pronunciation of the word [fa:]. On the other hand, there is a vocalic, or vowel-like and syllabic [r], that occurs in words like bird, murmur (after a vowel and before a consonant). Ch.Thomas writes that in such cases we should better transcribe the words bird and murmur like [brd] and [mrmr]. In such cases [r] is responsible for the characteristic vowel-like quality within the syllable; it is responsible for syllabic quality as well. That's why Ch.Thomas says that [r] syllabic in bird and [r] non-syllabic in far should be transcribed differently. According to V.A.Vassilyev it is still the vowel of the word that forms a syllable ([з:] in bird; [o:] in corn, etc.), not the syllabic [r] sound. He mentioned although that all the vowel sounds in pre-[r] position sound more like [?]. [r] gives the preceding vowel a retroflex colouring. It means that the tip of the tongue glides to the retroflex position without, however, staying there long enough to produce a full-fledged retroflex [r] sound, [r] also prolongs the vowel a little. V.A.Vassilyev uses the term "[r]-compensating" vowels (suggested by A.L.Trakhterov) for the vowels in such words in British Received Pronunciation.

4. One more peculiar feature of pronunciation of vowels in American English is their nasalization, when they are preceded or followed by a nasal consonant (e.g. m such words as take, small, name, etc.). Nasalization is often called an American twang. It is incidental and need not be marked in phonemic transcription.

5. GA front vowels are somewhat different from RP. Vowels [i:], [э] are distributed differently in GA and RP.

In words like very, pity GA has [i:] rather than [э]. In word final position it is often even diphthongized.

Vowel [e] is more open in GA. It also may be diphthongized before [p], [t], [k]: let [lе?t].

6. There are four mixed or central vowels in GA: [з], [?], [л], [a]. They differ markedly from RP vowels in articulation and distribution.

7. The three RP vowels [o], [ж], [a:] correspond to only two vowels in GA -- [a] and [ж]. This combined with the articulatory differences between RP [o] and GA [a] and a difference in vowel distribution in many sets of words makes it very complicated. The following chart vividly shows it:

RP GA

Dad [ж] [ж]

dog [o] [a]

path [a:] [ж]

ance [a:] [ж]

half [a:] [ж]

Besides, word distribution of [o:], [o] in RP and GA is completely different. GA [o] is intermediate in quality between the RP [o:] and [o]. In its production the lips are considerably less rounded.

8. Now to the qualities of GA diphthongs.

a) the diphthong [eэ] is closer in GA as opposed to RP;

b) very front realization of [зu] such as in RP is not found in GA;

c) the nucleus of [au] tends to be more advanced in GA;

d) since GA is a rhotic accent with non-prevocalic [r], it has the consequence that the following RP vowels (derived historically from vowel + [r]) do not occur in GA: [э?] in dear -- GA [dэr], [е?] in dare -- GA [deэr], [u?] in tour -- GA [tur].

Consonants

1. The RP allophonic differentiation of [1] does not exist in GA. In all positions [1] is fairly dark.

2. Intervocalic [t] as in pity is most normally voiced. The result is neutralization of the distribution between [t] and [d] in this position, i.e. latter, ladder. The original distinction is preserved through vowel length with the vowel before [t] being shorter.

In words like twenty, little [t] may even drop out. Thus winner and winter, for example, may sound identical.

3. GA [r] is articulated differently from RP one. The impression is one of greater retroflexion (the tip of the tongue is curled back further than in RP).

4. The "wh" spelling is represented in GA by [m] sound (or sometimes transcribed as [hw]. So most American speakers make a clear distinction between "wh" and "w" words: where -- ware, which -- witch.

5. The sonorant [j] is usually weakened or omitted altogether in GA between a consonant (especially a forelingual one) and [u:] as in the words: news [nu:z], Tuesday ['tu:zdэ], student ['stu:d?nt], suit [su:t], tube [tu:b], stupid ['stu:pid], during ['du:ri?].

Non-systematic Differences between General American and Received Pronunciation

A. 1. Many differences involve the pronunciation of individu­al words or groups of words. Here are some of these:

RP GA

cordial ['ko:dэ?l] [`korj?l]

either ['aэр?] [`i:р?r]

lever ['li:v?] ['lev?r]

schedule [?edju:l] ['skedj?l]

shone [?on] [?oun]

tomato [t?'ma:t?u] [t?'meэtou]

vase [va:z] [veэz]

2. Words apparatus, data, status can be pronounced with either [ж] or [eэ] in GA, but only with [eэ] in RP.

3. Words like hostile, missile, reptile have final [aэl] in RP. In GA they may have [?l].

B. Stress Differences

1. In words of French origin GA tends to have stress on the final syllable, while RP has it on the initial one:

RP GA

ballet [`bжleэ] [bae'lei]

beret [`berэ] [b?'reэ]

2. Some words have first-syllable stress in GA whereas in RP the stress may be elsewhere.

RP GA

address [?'dres] ['жdres]

cigarette [sig?'ret] ['sэg?r?t]

magazine [mжg?'zi:n] ['mжgazэn]

research [ri'sз:t?] ['rэs?t?]

adult [?'dлlt] [`жdлlt]

inquiry [э?'kwaэ?rэ] ['э?kwaэ?rэ]

3. Some compound words have stress on the first element in GA and in RP they retain it on the second element: weekend, ice­cream, hotdog, New Year.

4. Polysyllabic words ending in -ory, -ary, -mony have secondary stress in GA, often called "tertiary": laboratory ['lжbr?,torэ], dictionary ['dэk?,n?rэ]./22/

CONCLUSION

English is the national language of England proper the USA, Australia and some provinces of Canada. It was also at different times imposed on the inhabitants of the former and present British colonies and protectorates as well as other Britain- and USA-dominated territories, where the population has always stuck to its own mother tongue.

In the United Kingdom RP is a unique national standard. Therefore RP has always been and still is the “prestigious” national standard pronunciation, the so-called implicitly accepted social standard. In spite of the fact that RP speakers form a very small percentage of the British population, it has the highest status of British English pronunciation and is genuinely regionless.

During studying this work we tried to find out the characteristic features of the present day varieties of the English language of the United Kingdom and beyond the bounds of it. We have done it by solving assigned tasks:

1. We gave the definition to the notion “dialect”.

2. We determined the history and geography of dialects spread.

3. We found out the difference between the dialects and the standard language.

Dialect is a variety of a language. A dialect may be distinguished from other dialects of the same language by features of any part of the linguistic structure - the phonology, morphology, or syntax. The label dialect, or dialectal, is attached to substandard speech, language usage that deviates from the accepted norm. On the other hand the standard language can be regarded as one of the dialects of a given language.

In considering the history and development of the English language we may maintain that a regional variety of English is a complex of regional standard norms and dialects. Owing to specific ways of development, every regional variety is characterized by a set of features identical to a variety of English.

The comparative analysis of the phonetic system of the regional varieties of English pronunciation shows the differences in the pronunciation in the system of consonant and vowel phonemes.

The local dialects on the British Isles are being gradually replaced by regional variants of the national language, i. e. by a literary standard with a proportion of local dialect features. On the other hand, it is important to note that urban dialects are undergoing developments of a new type, and the phonetic differences between urban varieties seem to be on the increase.

American English and British English are two equitable variants of the same language, because their structural peculiarities, especially their word-formation system, syntax and morphology, as well as their word-stock and phonetic system are essentially the same. American standard is a slight modification of the norms accepted on the British Isles.

Local variations in the USA are relatively small. What is called by tradition American dialects is closer in nature to regional variants of the literary national language.

The so-called local dialects on the British Isles and in the USA are used only by the rural population and only for the purposes of oral communication. In both variants local distinctions are more marked in pronunciation, less conspicuous in vocabulary and insignificant in grammar.

The study of regional linguistic variation is very important. The more we know about regional variation and change in the use of English, the more we will come to appreciate the individuality of each of the varieties which we call dialects, and the less we are likely to adopt demeaning stereotypes about people from other parts of the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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2. Арнольд И. В. “Лексикология современного английского языка”, М. - Высшая школа, 1986.

3. Allen B.H., Linn M.D. “Dialect and language variation”, Orlando - 1986

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5. Brook G.L. “English Dialects”, Oxford Un. Press - 1963

6. Brook G.L. “Varieties of English”, Lnd - 1977

7. Cheshire J. “Variation in an English dialect. A sociolinguistic study”, Cambridge Un. Press - 1982

8. Crystal D. “The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language”, Cambridge - 1995

9. Encyclopedia Britannica CD 2000 Deluxe Edition

10. Ильиш Б.А. “История английского языка”. М., 1968

11. Gimson A.C. “An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English”, Lnd - 1981

12.Ginzburg R. S., Khidekel S. S., Knyazeva G. Y., Sankin A. A. “A course in modern English lexicology”

13. Hornby A.S. “Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English”, Oxford Un. Press - 1996

14. Hughes and Trudgill “English accents and dialects: An introduction to social and regional varieties of British English”, Lnd - 1979

15.Маковский М.М. “Английская диалектология. Современные английские диалекты Великобритании”. М. - 1980

16. Malmstrom J., Weaver C Transgrammar. “English structure, style and dialects”, Brighton - 1973

17. Muller “Modern English-Russian Dictionary”, M. - 2001

18. Rastorgueva А. “A history of English”, M. - Vysshaya shkola, 1983

19. Shaw G.B. “Pygmalion”, NY - 1994

20. Sheerin S., Seath J., “White G. Spotlight on Britain”, Oxford - 1990

21. Shopen T., Williams J.M. “Standards and dialects in English”, Cambridge - 1980

22.Соколова М. А., Гинтовт К. П., Тихонова И. С., Тихонова Р. М. “Теоретическая фонетика”, М. - Высшая школа, 2004

23. Trudgill P. “On dialect: Social and Geographical Perspectives”, NY and Lnd - 1984

24. Trudgill P. “Dialects in Contact”, Oxford - 1986

25. Шахбагова Д.А. “Фонетические особенности произносительных вариантов английского языка”, М. - 1982

26. Wakelin M.F. “Discovering English Dialects”, Shire Publications LTD - 1978

27. www.bbc.co.uk/history

28. www.en.wikipedia.org

29. www.picturesofengland.com

30. www.planet-britain.com

APPENDIX 1: SELECTED LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS ON THE BRITISH ISLES

APPENDIX 2: REGIONS AND DIALECTS OF ENGLAND

APPENDIX 3: VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

APPENDIX 4: VARIETIES OF ENGLISH IN THE WORLD

Раздел 1.01 Europe

· European English

· British English (BrE)

o England (English English (EngEng))

§ Northern English

§ Geordie (spoken in Tyneside)

§ Mackem (spoken in Sunderland)

§ Pitmatic (spoken in the Northumberland coalfield)

§ Durham

§ Cumbrian

§ Tyke (Yorkshire). Often subdivided into North, West and East Ridings.

§ Lancashire. The accent of Manchester is known as Mancunian

§ Scouse (spoken in Liverpool and Merseyside)

§ East Midlands English

§ Derbyshire

§ Nottinghamshire

§ Lincolnshire

§ Leicestershire

§ Northamptonshire

§ Corby English (influenced by Glaswegian)

§ West Midlands English

§ Black Country (Yam Yam)

§ Brummie (spoken in Birmingham)

§ Potteries (North Staffordshire)

§ Herefordshire

§ Warwickshire

§ Worcestershire

§ East Anglian English

§ Norfolk dialect (Broad Norfolk)

§ Suffolk dialect

§ South East England

§ Estuary English

§ Cockney (London)

§ Jafaican

§ West Country dialects

§ Bristol

§ Somerset

§ Devon

§ Cornwall

§ Wiltshire

§ Dorset

o Scotland

§ Scottish English

§ Highland English

§ Glaswegian

§ Buchan Doric

o Wales

§ Welsh English

§ North East English a toned down Scouse/Manchester accent due to English population

§ Pembrokeshire dialect

· Ireland

o Republic of Ireland

§ Hiberno-English

§ Yola dialect

o Northern Ireland

§ Mid Ulster English

§ Ulster Scots English

· Isle of Man

o Manx English

· Channel Islands

o Guernsey English

o Jersey English

· Gibraltar

o Llanito

Раздел 1.02 North America

· American English (AmE)

o Cultural

§ African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)

§ Appalachian English

§ General American

§ Chicano English

§ Native American English (Amerindian English) (see also subtypes below)

§ Pennsylvania Dutchified English

§ Yinglish

o Regional

§ Northeastern dialects

§ Baltimorese

§ Boston English

§ Northeast Pennsylvania English (Scranton, Pennsylvania-area)

§ Hudson Valley English (Albany, New York-area)

§ Maine-New Hampshire English

§ Philadelphia-area English

§ Pittsburgh English

§ Providence-area English

§ New York-New Jersey English

§ Nuyorican English

§ Vermont English

§ Mid-Atlantic dialects

§ Tidewater accent

§ Virginia Piedmont

§ Virginia Tidewater [1]

§ Midwest

§ Inland North American (Lower peninsula of Michigan, northern Ohio and Indiana, Chicago, part of eastern Wisconsin and upstate New York)

§ North Central American English (includes Minnesota, North Dakota and some of South Dakota, Wisconsin, Michigan and Iowa)

§ Yooper dialect (the variety of North Central American English spoken in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and in some neighboring areas)

§ North Midlands English (thin swath from Nebraska to Ohio)

§ St. Louis-area English

§ Wisconsin-Illinois dialect

§ Southern English

§ Appalachian English

§ Coastal Southeastern (Charleston, South Carolina, Savannah, Georgia area)

§ Cajun English

§ Harkers Island English (North Carolina)

§ Ozark Southern English

§ Southern Highland English

§ South Midlands English (thin swath from Oklahoma to Pennsylvania)

§ Tampanian English

§ Texan

§ Yat (New Orleans)

§ Western English

§ California English

§ Boontling

§ Hawaiian English (Hawaiian Pidgin)

§ Utah English

§ Pacific Northwest English

· Bermudian English

· Canada

o Canadian English (CaE)

§ Native American English (Amerindian English)

§ Quebec

§ Quebec English

§ Maritimes

§ Maritimer English

§ Cape Breton accent

§ Lunenburg English

§ West/Central Canadian English

§ Toronto English

§ Northern Ontario English

§ Eastern Ontario English

§ Ottawa Valley Twang

§ Newfoundland English

· Native American English (Amerindian English)

o Mojave English

o Isletan English

o Tsimshian English

o Lumbee English

o Tohono O'odham English

o Inupiaq English

Раздел 1.03

Раздел 1.04 Caribbean

· Caribbean English

o Anguillan English

o Jamaican English

o Trinidadian English

Раздел 1.05 Asia

· Burmese English

· Hong Kong English

· Indian English

o Punjabi/Delhi English

o U.P/Bihari English

o Bengali/Assamese English

o Gujarati English

o Maharashtrian English

o Kannadiga English

o Telugu English

o Tamil English

o Malayalee English

· Malaysian English (MyE)

· Philippine English

· Singapore English

· Sri Lankan English (SLE)

Раздел 1.06 Africa

· Liberian English

· Malawian English

· South African English

Раздел 1.07 Oceania

· Australian English (AuE)

o Cultural

§ Australian Aboriginal English

§ Lebanese Australian English

§ Torres Strait English

o Regional

§ South Australian English

§ Western Australian English

· Fijian English

· New Zealand English

Раздел 1.08 Constructed

· Basic English

· E-Prime

· European English

· Globish

· Newspeak

· Special English

Раздел 1.09 Manual encodings of English

· British Signed English

· US Signed Exact English (SEE)

· Australasian Signed English

These encoding systems should not be confused with sign languages such as British Sign Language and American Sign Language.

Раздел 1.10 The "Lishes"

The following are portmanteaus devised to describe certain local variants of English. Although similarly named, they are actually quite different in nature, with some being genuine mixed languages, some being instances of heavy code-switching between English and another language, some being genuine local dialects of English used by first-language English speakers, and some being non-native pronunciations of English. A few portmanteaus (such as Greeklish and Pinglish) are transliteration methods rather than any kind of spoken variant of English.

· Benglish (Bengali English)

· Chinglish (Chinese English)

· Czenglish (Czech English)

· Danglish (Danish English)

· Dunglish (Dutch English)

· Engrish (Japanese English)

· Finglish (Finnish English)

· Franglais (French English)

· Denglisch/Genglish/Ginglish/Germish/Pseudo-Anglicism (German English)

· Hebrish (Hebrew English)

· Hinglish (Hindi English)

· Hunglish (Hungarian English)

· Italish (Italian English)

· Japlish (Japanese English)

· Konglish (South Korean English)

· Manglish/Malaysian Colloquial English (Malaysian English)

· Poglish (Polish English)

· Rominglish/Romglish (Romanian English)

· Runglish (Russian English)

· Serblish (Serbian English)

· Singlish (Singaporean English)

· Spanglish (Spanish English)

· Swenglish (Swedish English)

· Taglish (Tagalog English)

· Tanglish (Tamil English)

· Tinglish/Thailish (Thai English)

· Vinish (Vietnamese English)

· Wenglish (Welsh English)

· Yeshivish (Yeshiva English)

· Yinglish (Yiddish English)


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