Cambodias Decline and the Fall of Angkor as Pictured in the Chinese Sources during the Yuan and Early-Middle Ming dynasties (Late XIII - Early XV cc.)
Fall of Angkor in the XV century - a turning point in the history of Cambodia, a factor in the decline of the Khmer civilization. Perception of events by China. Transformation of the description of Cambodia in Chinese sources of the Yuan, Ming epochs.
| 27.05.2023 | |
| 213,8 K |
. ,
, , , , .
An image of a native of Zhenla is also present in Yi;yu tuzhi. The person on the picture is most probably a Buddhist monk wearing robes and walking barefooted which perfectly corresponds to an image of the Zhenla monks. This portrayal was probably chosen in order to show the important religious background of Zhenla, moreover, it could symbolize the transition to favoring Buddhism which was spoken about above.
Fig. 2. Zhenla native as pictured in Yiyu tuzhi
None of the early and mid-Ming dynasty maps picture Zhenla on them either which could also be interpreted as a sign of Cambodia's insignificance especially compared to the previously analyzed Song dynasty map where Zhenla occupies Zhancheng's position.
Another important point to analyze is although the fall of Angkor is usually believed to have occurred in 1431 after a major Thai attack, the Chinese sources never refer to this date. However, another attack on Cambodia is mentioned in Ming shVs account of Siam which happened during Wanli reign (supposedly around 1573-1578) during which they attacked and destroyed Zhenla and subdued their king. This seems to have been a decisive victory for Siam since it is said that year after year later on they used their troops and became a hegemon over all countries T For the translation, see: [61. P. 10].. This event is not recorded in any other Chinese sources. M. Vickery in his study on Cambodia in the 15th century also seems to have missed this entry, however, he comes to the conclusion that during this period Cambodia was once again divided into two competing regions, North and South, both led by Ayutthayan chiefs. Therefore, it was more of an internal conflict of no particular interest for the Chinese. M. Vickery also proposes that the second occupation of Angkor happened around the middle of the 16th century but the dates of the inscriptions provided in his study do not correspond with the date from the Ming shi [45. P. 48-49]. Therefore, one can presume that the turmoil within the Khmer lands continued up to the end of the 16th century and there also could have been a third occupation of Angkor.
Conclusion
The Yuan dynasty sources speak very little of Zhenla with Zhou Daguan5s account being the most informative and contemporary. Some of the characteristics attributed to the army, people and general situation within Angkor point to its degradation. Daoyi zhilue also does not record any new data about trading with this country simultaneously stating that Zhancheng was at the crossroads of the maritime routes, indicating the transition of trade to the Cham polities instead of the Khmer ones.
The early and mid-Ming dynasty sources mostly reproduce the vision of Zhenla which remained from the Song dynasty at the same time incorporating the descriptions of the various palaces and temples of Angkor from Zhou Daguan's account, however, not hinting at any downfall in the general image of Zhenla. Nevertheless, sources such as Ming shilu and M^^g shi do contain evidence of the constant pressure on Zhenla (first from Zhancheng and later on from Siam). Even among the records written during Zheng He's travels only one contains a description of Zhenla which once again has no new information. Nor is Zhenla pictured on any of the maps from this period of time. Some sources also mention that the tribute missions from Zhenla were not regular. All of this may serve as an indication that the Chinese official circles noticed that a downfall was ongoing in Zhenla although no understanding of the political situation within the Khmer lands seems to have been present.
Another general characteristic applicable to Funan/Zhenla throughout all the time of its relations with China in comparison with Linyi/Zhancheng is that it has never plundered the Chinese lands and in its tributary relations with China it never broke its promises to the Chinese Emperor and in general was perceived as a well-behaving polity which is especially evident in Ming shilu; on the contrary, Zhancheng was pictured as a bully not abiding the Chinese will and constantly engaging in fights with Annam. Moreover, the first conflicts between Linyi and Funan (from the Chinese point of view) were initiated by Linyi which is probably the reason why plunder of Zhancheng in 1190s did not ruin the overall reputation of Zhenla but was rather perceived as its peak of development.
As for the reasons of Angkor's gradual decline outlined by specialists in Southeast Asia and archeologists, most of them are indeed directly or indirectly mentioned in the Chinese sources (apart from the climate change and epidemic disease), therefore, this study has in some degree strengthened the arguments for the gradual decline of Angkor.
Recently (while the current work was in progress) a new article was published by Liam S. Kelley (an associate professor of Brunei Darussalam University) in which he claims that the toponym Sanfoqi Rwhich is traditionally identified as Srivijaya was in fact referring to a northern Khmer polity and specifically Angkor during the Ming dynasty, while
Zhenla was a polity somewhere in the lower Mekong [62]. Although some ideas expressed in this article are indeed rather interesting and challenging the old concepts, in my opinion, the author has not yet presented enough evidence to back up his groundbreaking theory. Moreover, he seems to ignore some conflicting information from the Chinese sources which casts doubt to his conclusions. For example, while L.S. Kelly uses the information from Lingwai daida, he does not note that it is directly stated in there that Sanfoqi is located somewhere in the sea: the chapter on Sanfoqi specifically states that it is w"in fawongj /X?wn asϺ֮[23. P. 86]. Moreover, if Sanfoqi is indeed Angkor, how is it possible that Zhou Daguan never mentions this name in his account? Therefore, this discussion is to be continued.
References
1. Vickery M. Funan Reviewed: Deconstructing the Ancients. Bulletin de I'Ecole frangaise d'Extreme-Orient. 2003;(90-91):101-143.
2. Manguin P.-Y. Early Coastal States of Southeast Asia: Funan and Si^vijayain John Guy (ed.). Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; 2014.
3. Stark M.T. From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodiain Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nochols (eds.). After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press; 2006.
4. Pelliot P. Le Fou-nan. Bulletin de l'Ecolefrangaise d}Extreme-Orient. 1903(3);1:248-303.
5. Vickery M. What and Where was Chenla?, in F. Bizot (ed.). Recherches nou^velles sur le Cambodge. Paris: Ecole frangaise d'Extreme-Orient; 1994.
6. Zakharov A.O. Stanovleniye gosudarstvennosti v Yugo-V^stochnoy Azii: Funan i Chenla [Formation of Statehood in Southeast Asia: Funan and Chenla]. Moscow: IOS RAS; 2019. (In Russ.).
7. Aspell W. Southeast Asia in the Suishu: A Translation of Memoir 47 with Notes and Commentary. Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series. 2013;(208):1-33.
8. Goble G. Maritime Southeast Asia: The View from Tang-Song China. Nalanda-Sriwijaya Working Paper Series. 2014;(16):1-19.
9. Kolnin I.S. Perception of Mainland Southeast Asia in China during the Yuan -- Ming Transition (Late XIII -- Early XVI cc.) (Angkor, Ayutthaya and Champa as Examples). Moscow: NRU HSE; 2022. (Unpublished MA Thesis).
10. Tran Ky Phuong and Bruce M. Lockhart (eds.). The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art. Singapore: NUS Press; 2011.
11. Arlo Griffiths, Andrew Hardy and Geoff Wade (eds). Champa: Territories and Networks of a Southeast Asian Kingdom. Paris: Ecole frangaise d' Extreme-Orient; 2019.
12. Li Tana. The Changing Landscape of the Former Linyi in the Provinces of Quang Tri and Thua Thien-Hue. Nalanda-Sriwijaya Working Paper Series. 2019;(30):1-16.
13. Buckley B.M. et al. Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2010;107(5):6748-6752.
14. Carter A.K. et al. Temple Occupation and the Tempo of Collapse at Angkor Wat, Cambodia.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2019;116(25):12226-12231.
15. Penny D. et al. Geoarchaeological Evidence from Angkor, Cambodia, Reveals a Gradual Decline rather than a Catastrophic 15th-Century Collapse. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2019;116(11):4871-4876.
16. Chen Xiansi et al. (eds.). Zhongguo guji zhong de Jianpuzhai shiliao. Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe; 1985. (In Chinese).
17. Lu Junling, Zhou Shaoquan(eds.). Zhongguo guji zhong youguan Jianpuzhai ziliao huibian. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju; 1986. (In Chinese).
18. Fan Chengda. Treatises of the Supervisor and Guardian of the Cinnamon Sea: The Natural World and Material Culture of Twelfth-Century China, transl. and intr. by J.M. Hargett. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010.
19. Zhou Qu-fei. Za Khrebtami. Vmesto otvetov [Beyond the Passes. Instead of Answers], transl., intr., comm. and appendix by M.Yu. Ulyanov. Moscow: Vostochnaya literature; 2001. (In Russ.).
20. Fan Chengda. Guihai yuheng zhi jiaozhu, ed. and comm. by Yan Pei. Nanning: Guangxi renmin chubanshe; 1986. (In Chinese).
21. Almonte V. The Historical Value of the Work Lingwai Daida b^ Zhou Qufei. Canterano: Aracne; 2020.
22. Netolitzky A. Das Ling-wai-tai-ta von Chou Ch'u-fei: Eine Landeskunde Sudchinas aus dem 12. Jahrhundert. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner; 1977.
23. Zhou Qufei. Lingwai daida jiaozhu, ed. and comm. by Yang Wuquan. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju; 1999. (In Chinese).
24. Chen Jiarong et al. (eds.). Gudai Nanhai diming huishi. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju; 1986. (In Chinese).
25. Kolnin I.S. Some Thoughts on Zhao Rugua's Biography and Zhufan zhi: Translation and Comparison of Relevant Fragments from Various Sources. Crossroads. 2018(17-18):45-68.
26. Hirth F. and Rockhill W.W. Chau Ju-kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chi. St. Petersburg: Printing Office of the Imperial Academy of Sciences; 1912.
27. Shao-yun Yang. A Chinese Gazetteer of Foreign Lands. A ne^ translation of Part 1 of the Zhufan (1225). 2022. Available from: https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/39bce63e4e0642d3abce6c24db470760 [Accessed: 26.05.2022].
28. Zhu fan zhi (Opisanie inozemnyh stran) Zhao Rugua: vazhnejshij istoriko-geograficheskij istochnik kitajskogo srednevekov'ya [Zhu fan zhi (Description of foreign countries) by Zhao Rugua: the Most Important Historical-Geographical Sources of Medieval China], transl., comm. and appendix by M. Yu. Ulyanov. Moscow: Vostochnaya literature; 2019. (In Russ.).
29. Zhao Rugua.. Zhufan zhi jiaoshi. ed. and annot. by Yang Bowen. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju; 1996. (In Chinese).
30. Zhao Rugua. Zhufan zhi zhubu. Ed. and comm. by Han Zhenhua. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press; 2000.
31. Ricklefs MC. Land and the Law in the Epigraphy of Tenth-Century Cambodia. The Journal of Asian Studies. 1967;26(3):411-420.
32. Wolters OW. Chen-Li-Fu: a State of the Gulf of Siam at the Beginning of the 13th Century. Journal of Siam Society. 1960;48(2):1-35.
33. Zhu Jianqiu et al. (eds.). Zhongwai jiaotong gu ditu ji. Shanghai: Zhongxi shuju; 2016. (In Chinese).
34. Schottenhammer A. Huihui Medicine and Medical Drugs in Yuan China, in Morris Rossabi (ed.). Eurasian Influences on Yuan China. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing; 2013.
35. Clarence-Smith W.G. Elephants in Mongol History: From Military Obstacles to Symbols of Buddhist Power, in Rotem Kowner et al. (eds). Animals and Human Society in Asia: Historical, Cultural and Ethical Perspectives. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan; 2019.
36. Zhou Daguan. A Record of Cambodia. The Land and Its People, tr. with introduction and notes by P. Harris. Bangkok: Silkworm Books; 2007.
37. Zhou Daguan. Customs of Cambodia, tr. and annot. by Solang &Beling Uk. DatASIA Piess; 2016.
38. Zhou Daguan. Zhenlafengtu jijiaozhu, ed. and comm. by Xia Nai. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju; 1981. (In Chinese).
39. Nietupski P.K. Medieval Khmer Society: The Life and Times of Jayavarman VII (ca. 1120-1218). ASIANetworkExchange. 2019;26(1):33-74.
40. O'Connor R.A. Agricultural Change and Ethnic Succession in Southeast Asian States: A Case for Regional Anthropology. The Journal of Asian Studies. 1995;5(44):968-996.
41. Lieberman V and Buckley B. The Impact of Climate on Southeast Asia, circa 950-1820: New Findings. Modern Asian Studies. 2012;46(5):1049-1096.
42. Rockhill W.W. Notes on the Relations and Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago and the Coasts of the Indian Ocean during the Fourteenth Century. T'oung Pao. 1915(16):61-159.
43. Wang Dayuan. Daoyi zhilue jiaoshi, ed. and annot. by Su Jiqing. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju;1981. (In Chinese).
44. Wolters O.W. The Khmer King at Basan (1371-3) and the Restoration of the Cambodian Chronology During the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Asia Major. 1966;12(1):44-89.
45. Vickery M. Cambodia and Its Neighbors in the 15th Century. ARI Working Paper. 2004;(27):1-71.
46. Briggs L.P. Siamese Attacks on Angkor Before 1430. The Far Eastern Quarterly. 1948(8);1:3-33.
47. Polkinghorne M., Pottier C. and Fischer C. Evidence for the 15th Century Ayutthayan Occupation of Angkor, in The Renaissance Princess Lectures-- In Honour of Her Royal Highness Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn on Her Fifth Cycle Anniversary. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 2018.
48. Wade G. Angkor in the 14th-15th Centuries as Reflected in the Ming Reign Annals (not published).
49. Wade G. Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu. An Open Access Resource. Available from: https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/ [Accessed: 25.07.2022].
50. Wade G. The Ming-shi Account of Champa. Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series. 2003(3):1-21.
51. Fei Hsin. Hsing-ch'a Sheng-lan The Overall Survey of the Star Raft, tr. by J.V.G. Mills; ed. by R. Ptak. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag; 1996.
52. Fei Xin. Xingcha shenglan jiaozhu, ed. and comm. by Feng Chen^un. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju; 1954. (In Chinese).
53. Mayers W.F. Chinese Explorations of the Indian Ocean during the Fifteenth Century. China Review. 1875;4(2):61-67.
54. Klaus S. Huang Xingzeng: Verzeichnis de^ Akteneintrage zu Audienzen und Tributen vom Westlichen Meer (Xiyang chaogong dianl/u), annotierte Ubersetzung. Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades des Fachbereichs Geschichts- und Kulturwissenschaften. Berlin: Freie Universitat Berlin; 2005.
55. Huang Xingzeng. Xiyang chaogong dianlu jiaozhu. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju; 2000. (In Chinese).
56. Papelitzky E. Writing World History in Late Ming China and the Perception of Maritime Asia. Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz Verlag, 2020.
57. He Yuming. The Book and the Barbarian in Ming China and Beyond: The Luo chong lu, or Record of Naked Creatures. Asia Major. 2011;24(1):43-85.
58. He Yuming. Home and the World: Editing the Glorious Ming in Woodblock-Printed Books of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University Asia Center, 2013.
59. Zhou Zhizhong. Yiyu zhi, ed. and comm. by Lu Junling. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju; 2006. (In Chinese).
60. Yi yu tu zhi (FC.246.5). Available from:https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-
FC-00246-00005/1 [Accessed: 25.07.2022].
61. Grimm T. Thailand in the Light of Official Chinese Historiography: A Chapter in the History of the Ming Dynasty. The Journal of the Siam Society. 1961;49(1):1-20.
62. Kelley L.C. Rescuing History from Srivijaya: The Fall of Angkor in the Ming Shilu (Part 1). China and Asia. 2022(4):38-91.
Appendixes
Appendix 1
Translation of the Entries on Cambodia from Yuan shi
In the beginning of the Yuan it was ordered to Zhancheng, Jiaozhi and Zhenla to annually present elephants [to the Court]. [They were to be] brought up at the north of the lake at the Xijin lane [in Dadu] . During an Imperial Tour, foreign officials would ride [them] and escort [the Emperor]ެI. [They are to be used] to guide the Imperial chariot and to pull huge carriages.
ԪȶռǡֺDq֮ؕꖡ҄tެTԌ{{݂
[On the 18th year of Zhiyuan reign in winter on the 10th month] on Gengxu day ...1281) [according to] an Imperial Degree the country of Ganbuxi ɲcame to submit [to the Yuan].
tՓֲw
[On the 22nd year of Zhiyuan reign on the 9th month] on Bingzi day ӣ1285) Zhenla, Zhancheng presented 20 musicians together with medical materials, crocodile skins and the like.
ӣϞռؕʮ˼ˎġ{~ƤT
[On the 29th year of Zhiyuan reign on the 9th month] on Yichou day ҳ(1292) Ali wanted to prepare the fleet himself, together with Zhang Cun go on a military expedition against Zhaowa army, go (went?) to summon
Zhancheng and Ganbucha ʲ[troops?](ռ).[By the Emperor's]
edict Ali was awarded a three-pearl tiger tally 黢and Zhang Cun -- a one- pearl tiger tally.
ҳYͬ܊ռǡʲ죬tڰY黢һ黢ðYؓÓnǧV
[On the 7th year of Yanyou ӵvreign on the 9th month] on Jiachen day ׳1320)emissary Matuoman RUand others were sentto Zhancheng, Zhanla ռDLongyamen Tto search for tamed elephants.
׳......DzRUʹռǡռDTZ
[On the 2nd year of Tianli reign on the 4th month] on Bingwu day 磨1329). the country of Zhanla ռDcame with tribute of camphor wood _ľand elephantsleopardswhite monkeys Գ.
......ռDؕ_ľԳ
Appendix 2
Translation of the account of Zhenla from Yiyu zhi _D
This country is extremely hotit is south huihui ػ.Commonly [when there is] a marriagewhen the girls are 9 years oldthey meet the relativesthe monk is ordered to perform Buddhist ritualswith his finger [he] breaks the girl's hymen[with the girl's] blood puts a dot on the mother's forehead49, this is considered good fortune 50, in marriage the couple will be harmonious. In 10 years [girls] are married. When the people have intercourse with one's wifeher husband is happy. When a person of [this] country commits a theft[they] chop [his] hands and cut [his] feet or with a hot stamp burn a mark to brand [his] forehead [as for] those [sentenced] to capital offensea toon tree pierces their buttocks.
OᣬϻػءȢŮӾŚq˕Hѣɮ£ָ^ŮͯwѪcĸ~Ԟ£˷D͡ʮqޡcͨϲ˞I֔㣬Իӡӛ~ľꡣ
Allbest.ru
The main characteristic features of Ancient and Medieval history of Ireland. The main events, dates and influential people of Early history of Ireland. The history of Christianity development. The great Norman and Viking invasions and achievements.
[34,6 K], 10.04.2013Middle Ages encompass one of the most exciting and turbulent times in English History. Major historical events which occurred during the period from 1066-1485. Kings of the medieval England. The Wars of The Roses. The study of culture of the Middle Ages.
[23,0 K], 18.12.2010History of Royal dynasties. The early Plantagenets (Angeving kings): Henry II, Richard I Coeur de Lion, John Lackland. The last Plantagenets: Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, Richard II.
[26,6 K], 17.04.2003Process of accumulation of profit and abundance during the early Middle Ages. The attitude of the person to conditions of creation and reproduction of the property. Fomy Akvinsky's theory about use of money. Reasonings on Christian morals and profit.
[14,1 K], 19.07.2010The clandestine tradition in Australian historiography. Russell Ward's Concise History of Australia. Abolishing the Catholics, Macintyre's selection of sources. Macintyre's historical method, abolishes Langism. Fundamental flaws in Macintyre's account.
[170,7 K], 24.06.2010An analysis of the prosperity of the British economy in the 10th century. Features of the ascent to the throne of King Knut. Prerequisites for the formation of Anglo-Viking aristocracy. Description of the history of the end of the Anglo-Saxon England.
[20,5 K], 26.12.2010What is Civilization. Ancient Western Asia, before Civilization. Who Were the Hurrians. Mesopotamian Civilization, ancient Sumer. Digging in the Land of Magan. The Code of Hammurabi. Laws of Babylon, Egyptian Civilization, the Akkadian Kingdom.
[161,7 K], 04.02.2012The origin of the Sumerians and their appearance in southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. Their way of life and contribution to the history. The Sumerians culture, language and contribution to the history.
[252,4 K], 15.11.2014History of American schooling, origins and early development. Types of American schools. People, who contributed to the American system of education. American school nowadays in comparison with its historical past, modern tendencies in the system.
[52,8 K], 23.06.2016History is Philosophy teaching by examples. Renaissance, French Revolution and the First World War are important events in the development of the world history. French Revolution is freedom of speech. The First World War is show of the chemical weapons.
[21,6 K], 14.12.2011
