The Indigenous Watercraft of Northern Eurasia

Fig. 5. Skin Boats of Northern Eurasia and the Far East (drawing by Harri Luukkanen and Marcia Bakry)

Sea in 1556-1557 Burough St. The Voyage of the Foresaid M. Stephen Burough, An. 1557 // The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation. Cambridge, 2014. P. 363-375. and Pierre Martin de la Martiniere's voyage ca. 1753 (1706) Martiniиre P M. de la. A New Voyage to the North. London, 1706. indicate that before 1500, skin boats and kayaks were used along the entire Arctic Ocean coast and were not restricted to the historically-known Eskimo territories around Chukotka and Bering Strait. The widespread distribution of these watercraft raises the obvious question of their age and place of origin.

We know little about skin boats in Western Siberia, although the Samoyed along the Arctic Ocean coast, who had long been sea mammal hunters and fishermen, reportedly used such boats. Until the late 1800s, the Nenets (Yurak Samoyed) hunted and fished in the Ob River estuary and off the Yamal Peninsula in decked composite kayaks (log boat hulls decked with seal skins). They may also have used open boats (about which we do not have details). For the Tundra Nenets, farther north, seal and walrus hunting was an important seasonal activity. In the Ob River estuary, the Tundra Nenets shared their hunting grounds, skills, and boats with the Sea Khanty, who -- according to accounts written by polar travelers like Alexdander Schrenk (1848) and Timotheus Klingstedt (1769) -- hunted beluga in the lower part of the river and in Ob Bay.

East of the Ob estuary are the maritime territories of the Enets (Yenisey Samoyed). Johan Balak Balak J. Journey into Siberia and to the River Ob, 1581. Available: www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus16/ Merkator/brief_balak_20_02_1581.htm (accessed: 01.02.2019). documented their skin boats when he described the journey of the polar explorer and sailor Olivier Brunel, who met Samoyed paddling skin boats on the open sea near the Taz Peninsula 1576. The Nganasan of the Yenisey estuary used small open skin boats for hunting ducks on lakes and spearing reindeer at water crossings Simchenko Y. B.: 1) Nganasans // Materialy K Serii “Narody i Kul'tury. No. XXIII. 1976. P. 35-37; 2) The Culture of Reindeer Hunters of Northern Eurasia. Moscow, 1976; Popov A. A. The Nganasans // The Peoples of Siberia. Chicago, 1964..

Our study leads us to believe that before AD 1500 skin boats were used from the Barents Sea to the Anadyr River in Chukotka. This zone included the western regions inhabited by the Nenets, Enets, Nganasan, and Yukagir. Nenets, Sihirtia, and Mansi peoples, all of whom lived along the Barents Sea coast, may have provided connections between the Western Scandinavian pre-Saami skin boat users, while the Yukagir east of Taimyr carried this connection to the Siberian Eskimo and the Pacific tribes as far south as the Sea of Okhotsk. Evidence for the use of skin boats by the Enets and Nganasan, like the case for skin boats in the Sea of Okhotsk, the Kuril Islands, and southern Kamchatka Peninsula, is scant compared to the rich records for their use on the Chukchi Peninsula and in the Bering Strait region.

According to Antropova's classification, Siberian Yupik and Chukchi open skin boats were identical, while the Koryak boats had a different design and construction. Building a large open skin boat or kayak in the treeless tundra required lengthy preparation, including procuring wood for the frame and skins for the cover and gaining the cooperation of several builders and skin sewers. Furthermore, skin boats needed special care and maintenance; on long trips they had to be dried frequently to prevent stretching of the skins and leakage, and their skins and lashings needed constant adjustment and rapid repair when they were torn or punctured.

The close connection between the Siberian Yupik and the Chukchi since the 1600s may have resulted in transfer of the Eskimo kayak and open skin boat designs to the Chukchi. Although the Siberian Eskimo ceased building kayaks in the late 1800s and switched exclusively to the large open angyapit, Chukchi inland and maritime groups continued to use kayaks for hunting on rivers and lakes into the early 20^th century. Compared to the longer and more slender Chukchi and Eskimo type, the Koryak kayak was short and wide; it survived as a hunting boat in Penzhina Bay, in the northern Sea of Okhotsk, until the 1920s. The Tungus-Even people adopted this kayak, as well as the large open Koryak skin boat, when they came to Koryak lands on the Okhotsk coast. In all, only a few Chukchi and Koryak kayaks have survived in museums, and only a single Siberian Yupik kayak is known because their use had been replaced by angyapit which were more suitable for whale and walrus hunting.

Another maritime culture, the Itelmen (or Kamchadal) of Kamchatka, employed open skin boats of both the baidar and kayak types. Like the Yukagir, they have a long history in a large and rich land, but introduced diseases and attacks by other Native groups and by Russians entering their lands decimated them. The Itelmen used large skin boats for sea hunting and fishing until the 1800s, and we have some knowledge of their decked kayaks, which they may have shared with the Kushi (Kuril Ainu) and possibly the Hokkaido Ainu. The Nivkh, residing on the Sea of Okhotsk coast and Sakhalin Island, were probably also part of this skin boat maritime culture, but they stopped using such craft before they could be documented. A photograph taken on southern Sakhalin Island, then in Japanese hands, shows two large open skin boats Nishimura Sh. A Study of Ancient Ships of Japan. Fig. 60., but their construction details are not clear enough in the photograph to allow detailed description.

We have found a drawing of a two-horned Yukagir decked skin kayak in Geor- gi's 1776 description of Siberian peoples that has been overlooked in canoe literature (Fig. 6). This kayak, from east of the Lena delta, is very similar to the miniature ivory kayak models excavated from the ca. 500 years CE. Old Bering Sea culture site at Ekven, on Chukotka's East Cape (Fig. 7). Both models show gunwales protruding from bow and stern. The form of the two-horned Yukagir boat suggests design continuity with this ancient Eskimo-Chukchi boat, for these horns are a diagnostic feature of modern angyapik/ umiak construction.

A new find demonstrating likely evidence of skin boats comes from an engraved whalebone artifact found at the Unenen site near Nunligran, Chukotka. The artifact came from the floor of a house excavated by Sergei Gusev, radiocarbon-dated to ca. 1,000 BCE and shows engraved images of hunters harpooning large whales Witze A. Whaling Scene Found in a 3000-Year-Old Picture // Nature News. Available: https://www. nature.com/news/2008/080331/full/news.2008.714/box/1.html (accessed: 01.02.2019). (Gusev pers. comm.). Given the treeless Chukotka coastal environment, it is reasonable to suppose that skin boats are represented. The find is controversial because identical images are only known from Punuk and Thule sites in Alaska and Okhotsk culture dating 1000 calCE, making the Unenen find 1500 years older than the appearance of whaling harpoons and skin boat models at Ekven. Nevertheless, it is of comparable age to harpoon cradles and kayak fittings indicating skin boats were present at 3000 year old Choris sites in Alaska.

Beyond the sea coast, the Evenk and Mongol peoples had a skin boat culture as well. Skin boats have been documented in the lower Yenisey and upper Lena basins, and in

Fig. 6. Yukagir Historical Scene with Two-Pronged Kayaks. Johan Gottleib Georgi (1776) included this illustration in his discussion of the Yukaghir, although it may represent Sakha. The romanticized scene shows conical tents, domesticated cattle, and people with tri-pointed headgear paddling and fishing in skin kayak-like boats. These boats have the same type of bifurcated bow and stern seen in modern Inuit umiaks and ritual boat carvings from the 1,500-year-old Ekven Old Bering Sea Eskimo site near East Cape, Chukotka [Georgi, 1776: 271]

Fig. 7. Spirit Boat from Ekven. This ivory Old Bering Sea model from a Grave 10/11 at Ekven, near East Cape, Chokotka, and a second example from the same site, are the earliest examples Eskimo skin boats. The model shares features of both a kayak (covered deck, cockpit, float gear) and an open skin boat (gunwale extensions, side profile). The human-face and whales on the deck suggest this is a spirit boat with a symbolic, not realistic, function. (Photo: E. V. Anishtchenko [Arutiunov, Sergeev, 1975, pl. 48])

Amur-Manchuria and northern Mongolia a similar skin boat culture has a deep history. Most interesting from an evolutionary perspective is the skin boat type we call a canoe-kayak, which has a self-supporting structure and fore and aft decks. It was known among the Chuni-Evenk people who resided between the Angara and Stony Tunguska rivers. Their canoe-kayak was constructed with thin, closely spaced stringers and ribs and was partially decked with reindeer skins or birch bark. The Chuni-Evenk may have originally come here from the Amur region, for a similar construction is seen in the Amur Il-type canoe, which also has bow and stern half decks covered with deerskins or birch bark. As suggested by Otis Mason, the decked canoe of the Kootenai Indians of British Columbia suggests possible ancestry with the Amur decked canoe.

Manchu or mixed Evenk and Tungus-Mongol heritage could explain the presence of skin boats in the Far East -- including, perhaps, the Korean Peninsula and Japan, whose skin boat history is documented in Chinese records. These records Nishimura Sh. A Study of Ancient Ships of Japan. describe the ethnographic and probably ancient use of rafts buoyed by hides filled with straw or wool and air by horse people of the steppe, especially the Mongols and their neighbors Sinor D. On Water-Transport in Central Eurasia // Ural-Altaische Jahrbьcher. 1961. Vol. 33. P. 156-179.. Since ancient times, Central Asian people have used open coracle-like, wicker-framed skin boats for crossing rivers, and modern Tibetans still use yak-skin boats for fishing and downriver transport of people and freight. Air-filled skins also supported rafts used for downriver cargo transport on the Yellow River and other large rivers in China. Construction and use of these rafts in the rivers of the Far East differed completely from the framed skin boat traditions in Northern Eurasia, and none of these Far East boats could be used for propelled travel. These Far East and Central Asian coracle-type boats probably once existed throughout the steppe, forest, and tundra zones of Eurasia as the Paleolithic prototype for the more highly engineered boats including bark canoes and skin boats. Even in the 20^th century people caught without time or tools to fabricate a canoe made simple coracles out of alder or birch withies covered with caribou skins to cross rivers. Examples of this living tradition can be seen in the impromptu bark boats of the Ainu, used for crossing rivers that consist of little more than a folded piece of elm bark supported by a light framework of gunnel-like sticks.

Summary: East Meets West

Our summary ends with a question: why is the history of bark and skin boats in the northern region of the Eurasian Far East so different from that in the continent's northwestern extremes around the Baltic and White Sea? To put it another way: why have so few of these highly serviceable craft been documented during the past 1,000 years in Fennos- candia, with virtually none persisting into the recent historical era, while in the Far East bark boats dominated the interior waterways into the 20^th century?

Part of the answer lies in the types of available records. Written records exist in Fen- noscandia only from medieval times, and archaeological finds consist mostly of paddles. Here, bark and skin boats were mostly replaced during the Iron Age, and few excavated boats have been found dating to the succeeding 1,500 years. In Eastern Siberia and along its Arctic and Subarctic coasts, bark canoe and skin boat use continued into modern times, and both types of craft have been studied and documented, although few are known archaeologically. A wealth of data no doubt exists in Chinese and Manchurian literature dating back to the Iron Age, but this information is not accessible to researchers lacking Chinese or Manchurian language.

However, factors other than archival data are also involved. In Northern Europe, planked boats built with iron nails on a keel rather than a log base were introduced

2,0 years ago, stimulated by developments in the Mediterranean Crumlin-Pedersen O. Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain: A Personal Account // Maritime Culture of the North 3. Roskilde, 2010.. In northern Europe, lapstrake boats with overlapping planks with sewn seams and then in Viking times with nails, produced strong, light boats of all sizes following a single basic hull design. The smaller versions, for one or a few people, were more durable, and therefore safer, than bark or skin boats and quickly replaced them. Once iron tools and nails became accessible to local builders, plank log boats and clinker boats supplanted birch- and larch-bark canoes, first in the Baltic region by 1500, and soon afterward replaced skin boats along the Arctic coast of western Eurasia.

Unlike in Northern Europe, in the quieter waters of the Amur basin bark canoes continued in regular use into the 20^th century for hunting, fishing, and travel. Efficiency and Native economies were the dominant factors in their preservation. Birch bark was readily accessible and could be fashioned into a hunting or fishing craft with just a few days' work. Their persistence in the Far East resulted from social, economic, and political factors related to the maintenance of traditional lifeways, economies, and settlement patterns, and especially the absence of industrialization and commerce once away from the coast and the main Amur artery. As in Europe, boats with nailed or stitched planks also began to supplant bark canoes in the flat-water parts of the Amur system, but these changes did not reach peoples of the northern interior until the 19^th century. Where hunters had to navigate rapids and portage between lakes and tributaries, the bark canoe -- easy to build, requiring few tools or nails, and extremely light, with no cost for materials -- remained the boat of choice into the 20^th century.

Bark canoes have been an influential factor connecting peoples from Northern Europe to Chukotka and the Far East. They probably spread throughout the northern parts of the continent even before the final retreat of Ice Age glaciers more than 10,000 years ago and must have entered North America with the first Asian immigrants. Life in the taiga and boreal forests, with their extensive swamps and waterways, was impossible without the bark canoe. Its success continued until canvas, fiberglass, and aluminum replaced bark and wooden frames. Yet even with improved materials, following the same basic design style, canoes remain an integral part of modern life in the forest zone, even far south of the northern forests.

Skin boats and kayaks had the same level of importance for northern coastal peoples as canoes had for boreal peoples. From a construction point of view, the skin boat must have evolved from what people learned earlier in the forest zone from bark canoe building. The skin boat was the only feasible means of travel, migration, hunting and fishing in the rough, ice-infested waters of the northern marine environment. Extensive studies of the Eskimo-type kayak have been made across its range from Northeast Asia to Alaska and Greenland by Rousellot, Zimmerly, Golden, Heath, Kankaanpaa, and others, and many theories of its origin have been proposed, but none with definitive proof. It is unclear whether a single skin boat technology was shared throughout the Eurasian Arctic, but there is no doubt that after its refinement by Eskimo cultures in the Bering Sea it spread as a single tradition throughout the North American Arctic and Greenland. This technology represents one of the finest examples of nautical design (especially as seen among the Aleut/Unangan) known in the preindustrial world.

Today, bark canoe craftsmen like Henri Vaillancourt (www.birchbarkcanoe.net; see also John McPhee's The Survival of the Bark Canoe) McPhee J. The Survival of the Bark Canoe. New York, 1975. and a host of skin boat-builders and researchers produce, describe, and promote the use of bark canoes and skin boats of indigenous design. The success of Tappan Adney and Howard Chapelle's North American compendium attests to the undying interest among scholars, enthusiasts, and canoe/ kayak-builders who celebrate the ingenuity of northern craftsmen and the profound influence their boats had on human history. This revolutionary technology, originally inspired and made possible by the birch tree and animal skin, turned rivers and oceans into highways, made possible the discovery and exploitation of new lands, and connected peoples and cultures long before conveyances other than human feet existed. Two facts guarantee the legacy of Northern Eurasian canoes and skin boats: the settlement of the Americas and the continuing use of canoes and kayaks today. Together they are a fitting legacy for a craft that changed the world.

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