Обычаи и традиции англо-говорящих стран

When the incomers acquired their land they virtually took over a good many people who were living on it, and who, perhaps, were already formed into a family or clan unit. Gradually the old clan came to acknowledge the protection of their new leader, and at last built up a nominal kinship with him. In course of time intermarriage made it difficult to determine how far this kinship was nominal and how far real.

Under the patriarchal system of clanship, which reached its peak in the sixteenth century, order of precedence was strictly observed. First, after the chief himself, came members of his immediate family, his younger sons and grandsons, and then the clansmen. All of them, whether connected by blood or not, owned a common heritage of loyalty as clansmen. In return for the help and support of his clansmen, the chief was their leader in war and their arbiter in peace. Even in the early days the king was, in theory at least, the "chief of chiefs", and as the royal power spread through the Highlands the chiefs were made responsible for the good conduct of their clansmen. Among the most famous clans were: Campbell, Fraser, Munro, Cameron, Stewart, Murray, MacDonald, Maclean and Mackenzie.

The great period of the clans declined by the beginning of the eighteenth century and the failure of the Jacobite Risings in 1715 and 1745 completed the destruction. But today clan societies flourish in Scotland and, perhaps more ' bravely, elsewhere in the world. These societies are acquiring land and property in their respective clan countries, financing magazines, establishing museums to preserve the relics, founding educational trusts, and - perhaps above all - keeping alive the family spirit.

The Tartan

Tartan is and has for centuries been the distinguishing mark of the Highlander. It has a long history. Evidence can be brought to show that as long as the thirteenth century, and probably earlier, Highlanders wore brightly coloured striped or checked tartan plaids, which they called "breacan". There is some controversy about clan tartans as such. Traditionalists state the Highlanders wore tartan as a badge so that they could recognize each other and distinguish friend from foe in battle. Like many theories, this looks well on paper, but in practice it seems to break down. Even though the old tartans were simpler than the modern ones, they could not easily be recognized at a distance.

On the other hand, various descriptions can be quoted to show that, in the Highlands, the patterns of the tartans were considered important. A district tartan is a very natural development in a country divided into small communities. By the sixteenth century the particular patterns of tartan worn in a district were connected with the predominant local clan. But the study of the portraits shows that there was no uniformity of tartan even in the early eighteenth century. Members of the same family are found wearing very different tartan and, what is more surprising, many of the men are seen to wear the kilt of one tartan and a Jacket of another. The history of development of tartan was sharply broken in 1747, when wearing of Highland dress was forbidden by law after the failure of 1745.

In the early years of the nineteenth century efforts were made to collect authentic patterns of each clan tartan, but this does not seem to have been very successful. The fashion for tartan was fostered by the amazing spectacle of a kilted King George IV at holyrood in 1822, and demands for clan tartan poured into the manufactures. The wave of enthusiasm for tartan outstripped the traditional knowledge of the Highlanders, and it was at this time and in response to popular demand that a great many of familiar present-day tartans became associated with their respective clans. Some of the patterns had previously been identified by numbers only, while some were invented on the spot, as variations of the old traditional patterns.

The term "Highland dress'' has not always meant the same thing. In the seventeenth century the ki1t was not worn. Clansmen wrapped themselves in a generous length of tartan cloth some sixteen feet wide. The upper portion covered the wearer's shoulders, and it was belted at the waist, the lower portion hanging in rough folds to the knees. In the eighteenth century, this belted plaid was superseded by the kilt. Modern Highland dress consists of a day-time kilt of heavy material, sometimes in a darker tartan, worn with a tweed jacket, while for the evening finer material, possibly in a brighter "dress" tartan, can be matched with a variety of accessories.

Food and Drink

What sort of food has Scotland to offer the stranger? Scotland produces a number of dishes: Scots collops - a savoury dish popularly known as "mince", small mutton pies which must be served piping hot and the immortal haggis. And no country has a greater variety of puddings and pies, creams, jellies, and trifles.

The excellence of Scottish soups has been attributed to the early and long connection between Scotland and France, but there are some genuine soups, such as Barley Broth, Powsowdie or Sheep's Head Broth. Hotch Potch or Harvest Broth. Baud Bree (Hare Soup) is flavoured with toasted oatmeal and Cullen Skink is made with a smoked haddock.

Plenty of ingenuity is shown, too, in the preparation of both oatmeal and milk. Porridge, properly made with home-milled meal and fresh spring water, and served with thin cream or rick milk, is food for the gods. Lastly there is the national oatcake, which is described as “a masterpiece” by the French gastronomes.

As a nation the Scots are definitely better bakers than cooks. To beat the best Edinburgh bakers one must go, it is said, all the way to Vienna. There is an endless variety of bannocks and scones: soda scones, made with buttermilk, girdle scones, potato scones, without which no Glasgow Sunday breakfast is complete. Also the pancakes, the crumpets, the shortbread that melts in the mouth, buns of every size and shape! They are on offer in every bakery.

The Scottish housewife likes to buy her meat fresh and sees that she gets it. She likes the meat off the bone and rolled, as in France, and the Scottish butcher is an artist at his trade. Most of the cuts are different from England and have different names. Sirloin, one would understand, but what is Nine Holes? Steak is steak in any language, but what is Pope's eye?

And then the puddings! The black puddings, the white puddings, the mealy puddings. And king of puddings, the haggis! I once asked a Scot: "What's in a haggis?" His answer was: "I know. But I know no reason why you should. All you need to know is that it should be served with mashed potatoes and bashed neeps (turnips), and you must drink whisky with it. You will discover that the oatmeal in the haggis absorbs the whisky, and so you can drink more of it. What else do you need to know?" "A recipe of haggis", was my answer. "Hell, well, here you are", said my friend: B ounces of sheep's liver, 4 ounces of beef suet (fat), salt and pepper, 2 onions, 1 cup of oatmeal. Boil the liver and onions in water for 40 minutes. Drain, and keep the liquid. Mince the liver finely, and chop the onions with the suet. Lightly toast the oatmeal. Combine all the ingredients, and moisten the mixture with the liquid in which the liver and onions were boiled. Turn into a sheep's stomach, cover with grease-proof paper and steam for 2 hours.

Although the Scots are not a nation of beer-drinkers in the sense that the English are, some of the best beers in the world are brewed in the Lowlands of Scotland. But however good Scots beer and ale are, it is universally known that the glory of the country is whisky. Scotch whisky was a by-product of traditional Scottish thrift. Frugal Scots farmers, rather than waste their surplus barley, mashed, fermented and distilled it, producing a drink at first called uisge beatha, Gaelic for "water of life", and now simply called whisky. No one knows when the Scots learnt the art of distilling, though it may have been before they arrived from Ireland in the fifth century AD, for in Irish legend St Patrick taught the art. The first mention in Scottish records of a spirit distilled from grain does not occur before 1494.

Today there are two kinds of Scotch whisky - the original malt whisky, made by the centuries-old pot-still process from barley that has been "mailed" or soaked and left to germinate; and grain whisky, made from maize as well as matted and unmalted barley. Most of the well-known brands of Scotch whisky are blends of many different grain and malt whiskies. The technique of blending was pioneered in Edinburgh in the 1860s, and a taste for the new, milder blended whiskies quickly spread to England and then to the rest of the world.

Barley is the raw material of the malt whisky distiller. The first process in making whisky is mailing - turning barley into malt. Mailing begins when the distiller takes delivery of the barley, usually in September or October, soon after it has been harvested. The barley is in grain form, and must be ripe and dry, otherwise it may turn mouldy and make properly controlled mailing impossible. The barley is cleaned, weighed and soaked for two or three days in tanks of water. Then it is spread on the malting floor, where it germinates for 8-12 days, secreting an enzyme which makes the starch in barley soluble and prepares it turning into sugar. The barley is regularly turned over to control its temperature and rate of germination. The warm, damp, sweet-smelling barley is passed to the kiln for drying, which stops germination. It is spread on a base of perforated iron and dried in the heat of a peat fire. Distillery kilns have distinctive pagoda-shaped heads. An open ventilator at the top draws hot air from the peat fire through the barley. This gives it a smoky flavour, which is passed on to the whisky. The barley has now become malt - dry, crisp, peat-flavored, different from the original barley in all but appearance. It is ready for the next stage in the process - mashing. It is stored in bins and then it is weighed to ensure that the right amount of malt is passed to the mill below, where it is ground. The ground malt, called grist, is carried up to the grist hopper and fed in measured quantities into the mash tun. There the grist is mixed with hot water and left to infuse. This extracts the sugar content from the malt. The sugary water, called wort, is then drawn off through the bottom of the mash tun. This process is repeated three times, and each time the water is at a different temperature.

For centuries, Scotch whisky has been made from mailed barley mixed with yeast and water, then heated in pear-shaped containers called pot stills. The early Highland farmers who distilled their own whisky heated their pot stills in huge copper kettles over a peat fire. Smoke from the peat added to the whisky's flavour. Big modern distillers use basically the same technique. The vapor that rises in the still is condensed by cooling to make whisky. The shape of the still affects the vapor and so helps to give the whisky its taste. The most important single influence on the taste of Scotch whisky is probably the Scottish water. This is why distilleries are situated in narrow glens or in remote country near a tumbling stream.

The whisky comes colorless and fiery from the spirit receiver. In the spirit vat it is diluted to about 110 degrees proof before being run into oak casks to mature. Today, 100 degrees proof spirit by British standards is spirit with 37.1 per cent of alcohol by volume, and 42.9 per cent of water.

Scotch whisky cannot legally be sold for consumption until it has matured in casks for at least three years. The time a whisky takes to mature depends on the size of the casks used, the strength at which the spirit is stored and the temperature and humidity of the warehouse. A good malt whisky may have been left in the cask for 15 years, or even longer. Air enters the oak casks and evaporation takes place. Eventually, the whisky loses its coarseness and becomes smooth and mellow.

There are more than 100 distilleries in Scotland and the whisky made in each has its own distinctive character. Some distilleries bottle part of their spirit and sell it as a single whisky; but most whiskies go to a blender. As many as 40 different single whiskies may be blended to make up the whisky that is eventually sold. So specifically associated with Scotland has whisky he-come that the mere adjective SCOTCH requires no noun to be supplied in order that people should know what is meant.

Burns Night (25 January)

The anniversary of the poet's birth, is celebrated in every corner of Scotland, and indeed wherever a handful of Scots is to be found. There are hundreds of Burns Clubs scattered throughout the world, and they all endeavour to hold Burns Night celebrations to mark the birth of Scotland's greatest poet. The first club was founded at Greenock in 1802. The traditional menu at the suppers is cock-a-leekie soup (chicken broth), boiled salt herring, haggis with bashed neeps (turnips), and champit tatties (mashed potatoes) and dessert. The arrival of the haggis is usually heralded by the music of bagpipes. The haggis is carried into the dining room behind a piper wearing traditional dress. He then reads a poem written especially for the haggis! "The Immortal Memory" is toasted, and the company stand in silent remembrance. Then fellows dancing, pipe music, and selections from Burns's lyrics, the celebration concluding with the poet's famous Auld tang Syne.

Loch Ness and the Monster

Whatever it is that stirs in Loch Ness, it is no newcomer. An inscription on a fourteenth-century map of the loch tells vaguely but chillingly of "waves without wind, fish without fins, islands that float". "Monster" sightings are not limited to Loch Ness: Lochs Awe, Rannoch, Lomond and Morar have all been said to contain specimens. The Loch Ness Monster owes its great fame to the opening of a main road along the north shore of the loch in 1933. Since then, distant views of "four shining black humps", "brownish-gray humps" have kept visitors flocking to the loch. People who have seen the phenomenon more closely say that it is "slug-like" or "eel-like", with a head resembling a seal's or a gigantic snail's, while the long neck is embellished with a horse's mane. Its length has been estimated at anything between 8 and 23 metres, and its skin texture la "warty" and "slimy". Close observers, too, particularly Hr George Spicer and his wife who saw it jerking across a lochside road in 1933, have declared it "fearful".

It is not surprising that such waters, cupped in savage hills, should produce legends. Loch Ness is part of the Great Glen, a geological fault that slashes across Scotland like a sword-cut. The loch itself is 24 miles long, about a mile broad and has an average depth of 400 feet. Loch Ness has one direct outlet to the sea, the shallow River Ness, and it is fed by eight rivers and innumerable streams, each of which pours the peaty soil of the hills into the loch. Consequently, the water is dark. Divers working with powerful arc lamps 15 metres below the surface have been unable to see for more than 3 metres around them.

Over the past 40 years, sightings have been claimed by more than 1000 people. Most of the sightings were in bright sunlight conditions of flat calm, and several of the witnesses were trained observers - soldiers, doctors, seamen. Though many of the sightings were from a distance, witnesses have been convinced they were looking at a large animal, most of whose body was hidden beneath the water.

If it exists, it is most unlikely that the Loch Ness monster is a single animal. A prehistoric creature, living alone in Loch Ness, cut off from others of its kind, would have to be millions of years old. For the species to survive there must be quite a large colony. The colony theory is also supported by nearly simultaneous sightings in different parts of the loch. According to naturalists, the chances of the creature being a reptile are remote. Though Loch Ness never freezes, its temperature never rises above 6°C and this would be too cold for any known species. Also, reptiles breathe air, and would have to surface more frequently than the monster appears to. Though most zoologists deny the possibility that a large and unknown animal might be living in Loch Ness, it is remarkable that the mystery continues; and it is perhaps more exciting than any final scientific solution.

Scottish Weddings

Everybody knows about Gretna Green, the famous Scottish village just beyond the border. In the old days runaway couples escaped from England to Gretna Green to get married. The practice started in the year 1774. In that year a bill was passed in England forbidding marriages of person under eighteen without their parents' consent. In Scotland the legal age limit was sixteen - and still is for that matter. What is more, until the year 1856 the young couple could be married at once at any place in Scotland, without having to stay there for some time.

You may ask why all those young people chose Gretna Green for their wedding. After all, there are many romantic places in Scotland. The answer is simple. Gretna Green was the nearest village across the Scottish border, only ten miles of Carlisle, on the main highway. To get there took the least time and the least money.

The blacksmith at Gretna Green was always ready to perform the marriage ceremony at a small fee. The formalities were very simple. All that was needed was a declaration made by the young couple in the presence of two witnesses. Visitors of Gretna Green can still see the old blacksmith's shop and the famous marriage room in it.

The old tradition is still remembered. Many young couples who cannot get married in England because they are under age still think it romantic to go to Gretna Green. But today they must have enough money to stay there for three weeks.

Highland Games

Perhaps the most distinctive event at a Highland Gathering is “Tossing the Caber” - or, as the sixteenth-century writer called it, “throwing the bar”. The caber is the trunk - of a fir tree 20 feet long and ten inches (25 cm) thick at the bigger end. Its weight is about 100 kilos and it needs two or three men to lift it upright with the thick end at the top. The competitor then lakes hold of it and rests it against his shoulder. He takes two or three steps and then throws it so that it turns a complete somersault. The straightest throw, that is nearest to 12 o'clock in direction, gets the most points. If none of the competitors is able to toss the caber, a bit is sawn off the end, and then, if necessary, another bit, until at last one competitor succeeds.

Another feat of strength is throwing the hammer. This has a long handle and weighs ten kilos. The competitor is not allowed to run, he stands still and sweeps it round and round his head several times.

For all events, except races, the kilt must be worn. For highland dances, of which there are many varieties, the competitors wear full highland dress. This includes a smart jacket worn with coloured buttons and a “sporran” or purse made of fur, which hangs at the waist. The mast difficult and intricate of the dances is the sword-dance, performed over a pair of crossed swords which must not be touched by the dancer's feet.

4. Wales

Wales is the country in the west of Great Britain. It is mainly a mountainous land with a chiefly agricultural economy and an industrial and coal-mining area in the south. The landscape is beautiful. Many English people move to Wales when they retire.

Cardiff, a large city in the south, was chosen as the capital of Wales in 1955, mainly because of its size. Since 1536, Wales has been governed by England and the heir to the throne of England has the title of Prince of Wales, but Welsh people have strong sense of identity. There is a Welsh National party which wants independence from the United Kingdom and the Welsh language is still used in certain parts of the country.

Welsh is an ancient Celtic language, similar to Breton, spoken in Brittany, France. In the 60's Welsh was given equal status with English as an official language and is used in the law courts. It is taught in school and some TV program is broadcast in Welsh. However, only about 20% of the population speaks Welsh.

St. David's Day (1^st March)

Dewi (“David” in English), was the son of a Welsh chieftain. He was brought up as a Christian and went abroad to learn more about the life of a monk. Then he returned to Wales and founded many monasteries which became centers of religion and learning in the Welsh countryside. The monks lived a simple life of player, growing their own herbs and vegetables and offering generous hospitality to anyone in need. Because David's holiness and his inspiring teaching, he was made a bishop. The center of his bishopric was in the settlement we now know as St. David's on the Western tip of the country of Dyfed.

David is thought to have died on 1^st march, AD 589, and his shrine at St. David's was a place of pilgrimage in the Middle Ages. Later, when people of North and South Wales became one nation, he was chosen as the patron saint of Wales.

A legend tells how David suggested that his people should wear a leek in their bonnets during battles so that they could be easily recognized; Welsh Guards are still distinguished by a green and white plume in their black bearskins. At Windsor, on the Sunday nearest St. David's day, it is now a tradition that every member of the Brigade of Welsh Guards is given a leek by a member of the Royal Family. However, as St. David' Day is celebrated at the beginning of Spring when daffodils, are blooming, this flower has become a second, more graceful emblem of Wales. David's own emblem is a dove.

It is said that David had a sweet singing voice. He encouraged his monks to sing as well as possible for the glory of God, and perhaps this was the beginning of the Welsh tradition of fine made-voice choirs.

Many churches are dedicated to David in southwest Wales, and if you are traveling there, you might visit the cathedral at St. David's. Other places too are called after the saint, and you may visit Llandewi or Capel Dewi or Ffynor Dewi

The Welsh "national" costume

Seen on the dolls and postcards is largely a myth created for tourism. Certainly, the seventeenth-century country women wore long coloured skirts, a white apron and a tall black hat, but so did English women at that time. In the nineteenth century, the idea of a national costume was born and this pleased both tourists and locals, although there is no evidence at all of a long-lost costume.

The Welsh Eisteddfodau

No country in the world has a greater love of music and poetry than the people of Wales. Today, Eisteddfodau are held at scores of places throughout Wales, particularly from May to early November. The habit of holding similar events dates back to early history, and there are records of competitions for Welsh poets and musicians in the twelfth century. The Eisteddfod sprang from the National Assembly of Bards. It was held occasionally up to 1B19, but since then has become an annual event for the encouragement of Welsh literature and music and the preservation of the Welsh language and ancient national customs.

The Royal National Eisteddfod of Wales is held annually early in August, its actual venue varying from year to year. It attracts Welsh people from all over the world. The programme Includes male and mixed choirs, brass-band concerts, many children's events, drama, arts and crafts and, of course, the ceremony of the Crowning of the Bard.

Next in importance is the great Llangollen International Music Eisteddfod. held early in July and attended by competitors from many countries, all wearing their picturesque and often colourful national costumes. It is an event probably without parallel anywhere in the world. There are at least twenty-five other major Eisteddfodau from May to November. In addition to the Eisteddfodau, about thirty major Welsh Singing festivals are held throughout Wales during the same period of time.

Lovespoons

Lovespoons were given by suitors to their sweethearts in Wales from the seventeenth to the early nineteenth century. The custom of giving lovespoons died out in the nineteenth century but they continued to be carved especially in some country districts. Making lovespoons became something of an art form and woodwork competitions and Eisteddfoday often had examples of the genre.

In recent years, interest in lovespoons has reawakened and many people seek them out as desirable keepsakes. Visitors to Wales, particularly from overseas, wanting something uniquely Welsh to remind them of their visit often choose a lovespoon. There is also a growing tendency for Welsh people themselves to give lovespoons as gifts to commemorate special occasions - a new baby, a birthday, an impending marriage, a retirement or to celebrate a success of some kind. Lovespoons also make excellent Christmas presents. Today, when most people have neither the tine nor the inclination to carve their own lovespoons, the accepted practice is to buy a ready-made example of the craft or to commission one of the woodcarver specialists to make one.

Since pre-history, beautiful, hand-carved objects have had ceremonial, romantic and religious significance: long incense and cosmetic spoons, for example, have survived from Egyptian times. In the Middle Ages, a pair of knives in a sheath was considered a worthy gift and it was common for a bridegroom to present his bride with one: such sets were known as "wedding knives".

The history of kitchen utensils and the spoon belongs to Western culture. The history of the lovespoon belongs to Welsh romantic folklore.

From the mid-seventeenth century, lovespoons were carved from wood in Wales and there is one dated 1677 in the collection at the Welsh Folk Museum in Cardiff. It is amazing that it has survived because wooden objects are not particularly durable.

From the seventeenth century, the custom grew for a young man to give a spoon to the lady who took his fancy. Thus, particularly attractive young ladies might be given a number of spoons from aspiring suitors. It may be that modern word, "spooning" indicating a closer development of a relationship, is derived from this practice of giving a love token.

Early lovespoons were carved from sycamore which was readily available in the low-lying country districts of Wales. The main tool used was a pocket knife. Those who made such spoons were amateurs and it was a way of passing the time on long winter evenings. Imagine a young man busily shaping a spoon in a small room lit only by candlelight or the glow of a fire.

Numerous examples of lovespoons have been found throughout Wales but the giving and receiving of a spoon did not develop into "a ritual of betrothal". Indeed, there is strong evidence to suggest that giving a lovespoon expressed a desire for a relationship and was not an affirmation that a relationship had already begun.

Some young men did not have the time or the skill to carve their own spoons and professional lovespoon carters emerged. It was again, a question of demand and supply. Spoons were bartered for or purchased from these skilled craftsmen and a tradition of spoons made by the same wood worker grew in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was no wonder then, that the spoon became more decorative and elaborate.

A number of design factors should be mentioned in relation to spoon carving including size, weight, color and the nature of the completed artifact. As far as size is concerned, the earliest spoons were little bigger than the modern teaspoon, their use was limited, and larger spoons soon came to be carved. This meant that the handles, in particular, could be more and more elaborate. As they became more decorative, the spoons were displayed by hanging them on the wall in the living room or parlour. The weight and type of wood used for such a spoon depended on the setting in which it was to be displayed. Softwoods were often preferred and the colour selected so that it would look good against a wall.

A great deal of imagination was used in the creation of lovespoons. This elaboration was gradual. Two or even three bowls were carved instead of one to make it more interesting and attractive. Eventually, the bowl became less important and attention turned first to the handle and then to embellishments or additions to the handle. Sometimes the handle was enlarged or made rectangular in shape. At other times, filigree was added. The handle was pierced, cutting designs in fretwork or carving in relief were devices to add interest and meaning to the spoon. In this way, symbols were incorporated: hearts, locks, keys, shields, anchors and wheels were favoured themes.

A heart or a series of hearts was the most popular expression of love used on spoons. These might be single or entwined to suggest that the boy and his girl would soon feel the same way about each other. As the spoons became more decorative, their utilitarian use ceased altogether and they were used more for display. The heart was also an attractive and convenient device for suspending the spoon on a wall. Indeed, most spoons have a device for hanging them up, indicating that they were decorative rather than functional.

Anchors in particular were popular: the suitor has found a berth where he wished to stay. Many lovespoons were the work of seafarers who whiled away the tedium of a voyage by whittling. Besides anchors, ropes and cable designs often appear, as do vessels, steering wheels and various other nautical emblems.

Locks (keeping love or a lover safe), keys (unlocking love), miniature cottages and houses are recurrent themes with associations of lovers making a life together. The key may have a triple significance for it may indicate unlocking the door to the heart, it may indicate maturity (reaching 21 and the key to the door theme) or it may mean "let's live in marriage together".

Chain links look very difficult to carve and are another development of the whittler's art showing the woodworker's skill. Suggestions are that the links symbolically "link" the sweethearts together in love and possibly matrimony.

It must be stressed that many assumptions have been made about the meanings of the motifs which appear on lovespoons. Imagery is always difficult to explain and certain motifs may have had more personal significance for the donor than can be appreciated by the casual observer. Spoons were not mass-produced but made by one individual for another and many relied on personal nuances other than symbols to convey meaning.

Some spoons are dated. If the couple eventually marry, they then become a keepsake of the suitor's original interest. Other spoons are personalized either by initials or by an emblem of the occupation or the interests of the donor or donor. Often a carver wishes to incorporate a date, a monogram, a motto, a name or a quotation into a carving. If he wants to keep it a secret, he may work the date or name into the design.

Nationalistic emblems such as a daffodil, a leek, the word Cymru or even a dragon are sometimes used, but they are usually to be found on modern spoons. Some spoons are intended to be in the nature of Valentines and to be anonymous. It is difficult to understand, though, that someone who had spent many hours creating such a gift would not want his work to be appreciated. Others are decorated with dual initials, those of the suitor and his lady or with a single initial when we are left to guess whether this represents the donor or the donor. But we must try not to read too much into the minds of the carvers of earlier days. Whatever we think, we cannot help being amazed by the consummate skill of these lovespoon craftsmen.

The Welsh National Game

Rugby is a form of football. It is named after Rugby School in Warwickshire where it was developed, though the exact date (1823 or later) is in dispute.

Rugby is the national game of Welsh team was thought to be the best of the world. The rules of the game are rather complicated but mainly involve the carrying of an egg-shaped ball over your opponents' line and pressing it firmly on the ground to score a try. A team consists of fifteen players, eight of whom are usually much bigger and heavier than the rest. Their job is to win the ball so that the three-quarters can run forward over the line, trying to avoid the tackles of the opposing team. Often the heavier forwards can be seen pushing together in a scrum, trying to kick the ball backwards. Although the game seems to be similar to American football, the players are not allowed to throw the ball forward. Other point can be won by kicking the ball between the special “H” - shaped goal - posts.

When the Welsh side are playing at home at Cardiff Arms Park their supporters often try to encourage them to play better by singing the Welsh National anthem, “Land of My Fathers”. The sound of thousands of Welsh voices singing this famous song usually helps the Welsh side to score another try to win the game. Naturally they are especially pleased when this is against the English!

5. Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, is still a part of the United Kingdom. It is made up of six countries: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Tyrone. One third of the population lives in and around the capital, Belfast. Belfast is also the mast important port and commercial and industrial centre. Some parts of the territory, those that are not close to capital, have remained mainly rural.

The Irish population is divided into two groups: the Protestants and the Catholics. The Protestants are of British origin. They are descendants of British settlers who came to Ireland in XVth and XVIIth centuries, during and after the Reformation. The Catholics are mostly natives of Ireland.

The Protestants were the majority and dominated the Catholics with strong discrimination. In1968 the Catholics began the movement for equal civil rights.

The fightings between the two groups of the population continue to this day.

6. Canada

Canada is the second largest country in the world. Only Russia has a greater land area. Canada is situated in North America. Canada is slightly larger than United States, but has only about a tenth as many people. About 28 million people live in Canada. About 80% of the population live within 320 km of the southern border. Much of the rest of Canada is uninhabited or thinly populated because of severe natural conditions.

Canada is a federation of 10 provinces and 2 territories. Canada is an independent nation. But according to the Constitution Act of 1982 British Monarch, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom is recognized as Queen of Canada. This symbolizes the country's strong ties to Britain. Canada was ruled by Britain completely until 1867, when Canada gained control of its domestic affairs. Britain governed Canada's foreign affairs until1931, when Canada gained all independence.

Canada's people are varied. About 57% of all Canadians have some English ancestry and about 32% have some French ancestry. Both English and French are official languages of the country. French Canadians, most of whom live in the provinces of Quebec, have kept the language and customs of their ancestors. Other large ethnic group are German, Irish and Scottish people. Native people-American Indians and Eskimos-make up about 2% of the country's population. 77% of Canada's people live in cities or towns. Toronto and Montreal are the largest urban areas. Ottawa is the capital of the country.

Today, maintaining a sense of community is one of major problems in Canada because of different among the provinces and territories. Many Canadians in western and eastern parts of the country feel that the federal government does not pay enough attention to their problems. 80% of Quebec's population are French Canadians. Many of them believe that their province should receive a special recognition in the Canadian constitution.

History of Canada

Canada's history is an exciting story of development of a vast wilderness into a great nation. Most experts believe that the first people who lived on this land came from Asia about 15000 years ago. They came over a land bridge that once connected Asia and North America. Their descendants are known today as Indians. The ancestors of the Eskimos came to Alaska after them probably about 5000 years ago.

In 1497, John Cabot, an Italian navigator in the service of England, found rich fishing grounds off Canada's south-east coast. His discovery led to the European exploration of Canada. France set up a colony in Eastern Canada in the early 1600's. Great Britain gained control of the country in 1763, and thousands of Britain emigrants came in Canada. In 1867, the French and English-speaking Canadians helped to create a united colony called the Dominion of Canada. Two groups worked together to settle the country and to develop its great mineral deposits and other natural resources.

Canada gained its independence from Britain in 1931. During the middle of 20^th century, hard-working Canadians turned their country into an economic giant. Today Canada is a leading producer of wheat, oats, barley. Canada also ranks among the world's top manufacturing countries, and it is a major producer of electronic power.

Throughout its history, Canada has often been troubled by lack of unity among its people. French Canadians, most of them live in the province Quebec, have struggled to preserve their own culture. They have long been angered by Canadian policies based on British traditions. Many of them support a movement to make Quebec a separate nation. People in Canada's nine other provinces also frequently local needs over national interests.

7. Australia

Australia is the only country in the world that also a continent. It is sixth large country and the smallest continent. Australia lies between the South Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. It is situated about 11000 km southwest of North America and about 3200 km southeast of mainland Asia. The name of the country comes from Latin word “australis” which mean southern. The country's official name is Commonwealth of Australia.

The Commonwealth of Australia is a federation of states. Australia has six states-new South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. Each state has its government. Australia has two territories-the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. The capital of the country is Canberra.

Australia is a constitutional monarchy like Great Britain. The nation is administered under written constitution. The British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is also queen of Australia and country's head of state. But the queen has little power in the Australian government. She serves mainly as a symbol of long historical tie between Great Britain and Australia. Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations which is an association formed by Britain and some of its former colonies.

Australia is a one of the word's developed countries. Australia has modern factories, highly productive mines and farms, and busy cities. It is the world's leading producer of wool and bauxite. It also produces and exports large amounts of other minerals and farm goods. Income from the export enables Australian to have high standard of living. The most important trading partners of Australia are Japan and the United States.

8. Святой Георгий или Вильям Шекспир?

Национальный праздник англичан - 23 апреля, день святого Георгия, их покровителя. В этот день проходят торжественные церемонии в соборе святого Павла в Виндзоре, а также в некоторых других местных церквах. Но 23 апреля, кроме того, день рождения и день памяти Вильяма Шекспира, и он отмечается намного шире.

Центром этого праздника небольшой (20 тысяч жителей) городок Стратфорд на реке Эйвон, где в 1564 году родился поэт. Городок живет памятью о Шекспире круглый год, по сути, он сам - музей, состоящий из десятка «залов»: это дом, где родился поэт, грамматическая школа, где он учился, дома его матери, жены, дочери, дом, где Шекспир провел последние годы жизни, приходская церковь, где он похоронен. И, конечно, Шекспировский центр, Шекспировский институт и Королевский Шекспировский театр. В городе всегда царит оживление. Существуют четкие маршруты экскурсий, открыто множество гостиниц, автостоянок, постоянно идут спектакли. Собственно, вся жизнь города подчинена приему гостей.

Но самый главный день в году - 23 апреля. Еще накануне съезжаются оркестры, самодеятельные ансамбли, прибывают послы и дипломаты иностранных государств. Повсюду продаются веточки ароматного вечнозеленого розмарина, которые вставляют в петлицы и носят в знак памяти. Утром организуется прием в Королевском Шекспировском театре. ( Огромное здание из красного кирпича выглядит очень современно, но совсем не нарушает общего патриархального пейзажа - река, невысокие часовни, каменные домишки, разлинованные дубовыми досками; естественно выглядят расположившиеся на траве прямо рядом с театром люди, конечно, если день выдается солнечный.) Из театра в соответствии со строго разработанным ритуалом торжественная процессия следует к дому, где Шекспир провел свои детские годы. В этом доме колыбель, железный обруч - прообраз детского манежа, парта, посуда. Скорее всего будущий гений не пользовался этими вещами, и фраза о «хранимом тепле его рук» прозвучала бы неуместно. И все же создателям музея удалось достичь более или менее достоверной, хотя и слегка приукрашенной, атмосферы, вызвать у посетителей благоговейный трепет. За домом разбит сад, в котором можно встретить цветы и деревья, упоминаемые в произведениях Шекспира. Далее процессия движется мимо грамматической школы, где занятия идут (не прекращаясь!) с шекспировских времен, мимо Шекспировского института, куда съезжаются литературоведы со всего света, мимо дома, где жила, выйдя замуж дочь Шекспира Сюзанна и где родилась его внучка Елизавета.

Вот и Стратфордская церковь Святой Троицы, в которой похоронен Шекспир. Он предпочел это место всем другим на земле… Участники процессии возлагают на надгробье поэта цветы, венки, букеты. Таков финал торжества. А кульминацией его является церемония поднятия флагов нации. На центральной улице города на высоких флагштоках развеваются флаги, среди которых вот уже более 60 лет и наш, советский. Вечером всех опять ждет театр. Театральный сезон в Стратфорде длятся восемь месяцев, и зрителям предлагается несколько пьес Шекспира. В репертуаре одного из сезонов пьесы «Генрих Y», «Ричард 111», «Гамлет», «Венецианский купец», «Тщетные усилия любви». У Королевского Шекспировского театра саамы большой коллектив в мире! В самом Стратфорде сейчас есть три филиала по двести мест каждый. В Лондоне у театра еще два помещения, оба в крупном культурном центре Барбикан. Кроме того, Королевский Шекспировский театр много гастролирует. Пьесы Шекспира идут и в других театрах, например в «Русалке», в «Бэнк-сайде». В Редженс-парке в открытом летнем театре можно посмотреть «Сон в летнюю ночь» или «Виндзорские кумушки» на фоне необычных декораций - живых каштанов. Однако самое сильное впечатление оставляет игра актеров в Стратфорде. И зритель, как когда-то автор, выбирает этот городок…

9. Дни, когда едят хаггис

Покровителем Шотландии считается святой Андрей, поэтому день святого Андрея - 30 ноября - шотландский национальный праздник. Его отмечают все шотландцы - и в самой Шотландии, и далеко за ее пределами. До Реформации день святого Андрея был религиозным праздником, сейчас он носит светский характер.

С утра пораньше все мужское население от мала до велика отправляется на охоту - стрелять зайцев и белок. С честью справившись с этим делом, мужчины не менее отважно расправляются с праздничным обедом, основу которого составляют их охотничьи трофеи. Если же зайцу удается избежать своей печальной участи, неудачливые охотники все равно голодными не остаются: ведь помимо зайчатины в праздничном меню фигурируют и другие блюда. Среди них непременно запеченная баранья голова и традиционный хаггис, тот самый, которому посвятил одно из стихотворений Роберт Бернс. Хаггис - это нечто вроде огромной тефтели из рубленых бараньих легких, сердца и печенки, смешанных с овсяной кашей; смесь закладывают в говяжий рубец и отваривают. Вкус у блюда специфический, к нему нужно привыкнуть, но для шотландца не может быть ничего вкуснее.

Дородный, плотный, крутобокий,

Ты высишься, как холм далекий,

А под тобой поднос широкий

Чуть не трещит.

Но как твои ласкают соки

Наш аппетит!

( Перевод С. Маршака)

Если в Англии Шекспир соперничает со святым Георгием и побеждает его по популярности, то в Шотландии аналогичная ситуация: день рождения Роберта Бернса, появившегося на свет 25 января 1759 года, отмечается не менее широко, чем день святого Андрея. В 1802 года в Гриноке, Ренфрюшир, был создан первый Бернсовский клуб. С тех пор возникли и существуют сотни таких клубов, как в Шотландии, так и во многих других странах. Говорят, что, куда бы не занесло шотландцев, 25 января они обязательно раздобудут волынки, приготовят хаггис и будут отмечать день рождения любимого поэта.

В Шотландии на Берновский вечер (Burns Night) собираются фермеры и профсоюзные деятели , люди искусства священники, политические деятели и преподаватели университетов. Все они с охотой выказывают свою благодарность бедному эйширскому фермеру, затем скромному акцизному чиновнику - национальному поэту Шотландии, который оставил им богатейшее поэтическое наследие и дал повод собираться в этот январский вечер. Как известно, и англичане, и шотландцы встречались по какому-либо торжественному случаю, сначала едят и пьют, а потом, не на пустой желудок, говорят речи, читают стихи, поют песни, танцуют.

Церемония начинается в 7.30 вечера. Все сидят за столом, рядом с каждым - книжечка с песнями Бернса. Президент клуба читает №Заздравный тост»:

У которых есть, что есть,- те подчас не могут есть,

А другие могут есть, да сидят без хлеба.

А у нас тут есть, что есть, да при этом есть чем есть,-

Значит нам благодарить остается небо

(Перевод С.Маршака)

Официантки вносят супницы с горячим петушиным супом с пореем. После того, как суп съеден и тарелки убраны, в воцарившейся почтительной тишине начинают играть традиционные волынки. В зал входит тамбурмажор местного оркестра, за ним шеф-повар с большим хаггисом на серебряном блюде. Вслед за «командиром всех пудингов горячих мира» въезжают на столиках хаггисы поменьше в сопровождении картофельного пюре и толченой репы. Поднимают бокалы за королеву, поют национальный гимн. Потом обязательно провозглашается тост «за вечную память» и следует минута молчания. Звучат патриотические призывы, шутки, песни, стихи самого Бернса и посвященные ему. И опять играют волынки. А заканчивается все песней на слова Роберта Бернса «Старая дружба»:

Забыть ли старую любовь

И не грустить о ней?

Забыть ли старую любовь

И дружбу прежних дней?…

С тобой топтали мы вдвоем

Траву родных полей,

Но не один крутой подъем

Мы взяли с юных дней.

Переплывали мы не раз

С тобой через ручей,

Но море разлучило нас

Товарищ юных дней…

И вот с тобой сошлись мы вновь,

Твоя рука в моей.

Я пью за старую любовь,

За дружбу прежних дней!…

(Перевод С. Маршака)

10. Что такое айстетвод?

1 марта - день святого Давида, национальный праздник Уэльса, когда многие валлийцы, как мы уже рассказывали, носят в петлицах свою национальную эмблему - нарцисс или порей. Но есть и другой день, имеющий огромное значение для нации. Это главное событие года, его кульминация, напоминание о вечнозеленом древе народной жизни. Национальный айстетвод (the National Eisteddfod) , по утверждению валлийцев, - самое уэльское, что есть в Уэльсе. Валлийское слово еisteddfod означает «заседание», а сам праздник представляет собой состязание народных певцов, бардов. Это один из старейших валлийских обычаем, он был зарегистрирован в VI веке.

Айстетвод - «блуждающий» праздник: он проходит попеременно то на юге, то на севере Уэльса, но время проведения неизменно - первая неделя августа каждого года. На этот самый большой праздник народного творчества в Европе съезжаются валлийцы со всего света. Все процедуры ведутся на валлийском языке - ведь целью праздника является развитие национальной культуры и национального языка, который был запрещен актом о присоединении Уэльса к Англии. Борьба за сохранение древнего культурного наследия велась в различных формах и была подхвачена айстетводом. В программу включается выступления хоров - мужских и смешанных, духовых оркестров, девушек-арфисток, драматические спектакли, выставки живописи, других искусств, ремесел, мероприятий для детей. Выступления проходят в огромном переносном павильоне, который вмещает десять тысяч зрителей - как Альберт - холл в Лондоне! На празднике продаются пластинки уэльской поп-музыки, уэльские биографические справочники, национальный сувениры. Пик торжества - Коронование Барда, о которой мы расскажем чуть позже.

Следующий по значению Международный музыкальный айстетвод (International Music Eisteddfod). Он проводится в Ланголлене в июле. В нем участвуют не только валлийцы, но и представители многих стран, все в живописных и красочных национальных костюмах. Там при огромном стечении участников и зрителей проходят конкурсы народных песен и танцев.