Processes of receiving western astronomy in China and Vietnam

Some typical astronomical bibliographies translated or compiled by Chinese Jesuit missioners in the Chinese language in the late Ming and early Qing period (XVII-XVIII centuries)

Source: [Zhu Q Z., 2002, pp. 77-79; Xu Z.Z., 1949, pp. 230-318].

The compilation and translation of Western astronomical bibliography into the Chinese language by Jesuit missionaries working in China during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was generally carried out in the following manner: missionaries orally interpreted the content and Chinese astronomical intellectuals recorded it Qian C. X., Dai W B. Jinshi yishu dui Zhongguo xiandaihua de yingxiang [Impact of bibliographic translation in modern times on Chinese modernization] // Wenxian [The Documentat]. 1986. Vol. 2. P. 180.. It was this combination that enabled Western astronomy to be received by the Chinese. In fact, the astronomical bibliographies compiled and translated by Jesuit missionaries into the Chinese language in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were accepted by the king, mandarins, and intellectuals of this country and became the theoretical foundation and scientific basis for calculating the calendar, observing and verifying astronomical and meteorological phenomena at the Bureau of Astronomy of two dynasties of the Ming and Qing. The works compiled and translated by contemporary Jesuit missionaries in the country served as concentrated and profound manifestations of the adoption of Western astronomy in China.

In China, the process of adopting Western astronomy from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries was realized in many ways and brought about impressive results, while in Vietnam during this period the authorities pursued the policy of banning Christianity and expelling foreign missionaries, which not only continuously interrupted the reception of Western astronomy but also meant that the methods and outcomes of the reception were less diverse, powerful and profound than in China. In fact, Western astronomy made its way into Vietnam in the sixteenth-eighteenth only by the following means: through Jesuit missionaries who explicitly discussed and explained the knowledge of Western astronomy to the rulers of Vietnam, and secondly - by missionaries of this order who, on many occasions, calculated the imminent solar and lunar eclipses and outlined them in drawings informing the king and local officials, and also debated a number of issues related to these phenomena with Vietnamese astronomers.

According to the records of Jesuits in Vietnam in the first half of the seventeenth century, during the years of 1626-1627, two missionaries Giuliano Baldinotti Giuliano Baldinotti was an Italian Jesuit missionary, born in 1591 in Pistoia, near Florence, who died in 1631 in Macao, China. He joined the Jesuits in 1609. Twelve years later (1621), he set off to the East to the mission. While visiting Macao, where many Portuguese people lived, Baldinotti made a decision to go to Tonkin. On 2 February 1626, he and Portuguese merchants and a Japanese missionary Giulio del Piano departed from Macao and reached the capital of Ke Cho (Tonkin) on 7 March 1626. At that time, Trinh Trang Lord wanted to establish a regular relationship with the Portuguese, so he welcomed Baldinotti and the merchants very kindly. Because of his excellence in astronomy and mathematics, Baldinotti attracted special attention of Lord Trinh, and the Lord asked him to stay longer. During this time, he had the opportunity to go in and out of the royal palace, witness many royal activities and regularly experienced daily life in Ke Cho. However, due to the absence of knowledge of the native language, his mission in Tonkin (Tonkin) at that time failed to achieve results. See: Nguyen H. Lich sü truyê'n giao à Viêt Nam (Tap 1) [Missionary History in Vietnam (vol. 1)]. SàiGon, 1959. P. 97-98; Baldinotti G. La Relation sur le Tonkin du P Baldinotti // Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient. 1903. Vol. 3. P. 71-78. (Italian) and Alexandre de Rhodes Alexandre de Rhodes was born on 15 March 1593 in Avignon, in a Jewish family. On 14 April 1612, he joined the Jesuits in Rome and was ordained a priest in 1618. At the end of the year, he was accepted by the Jesuit Superior for the mission in Eastern Asia after having applied three times for a missionary trip between 1614 and 1618. He arrived in the Portuguese capital to board the ship to Eastern Asia, but because he was suspended for too long in Goa, until 29 May 1623, he reached Macao. Initially, he planned to go to Japan to the mission, but his wish was unsuccessful, so he was sent to Vietnam. He came to Cochinchina, Vietnam, for the first time in December 1624 and returned to Macao to go to Tonkin, Vietnam, in July 1626. On19 March 1627, he arrived in Tonkin and was expelled from the area in May 1630. From 1630 to 1640, he taught theology at the institute of Madre de Deus. Between 1640 and 1645, he returned to the mission in Cochinchina. In July 1645, he left Cochinchina for Macao and then went to Europe. In 1654, he went to Persia and died at Ispahan on November 5, 1660. See: Do Q. C. Lich sü chü Quoc ngü (1620-1659) [History of the Romanized Vietnamese script (1620-1659)]. P 106. (French) once conversed with Trinh Lord and some Tonkin mandarins about the solar eclipse, lunar eclipse as well as about the movement of stars in the sky Baldinotti G. La Relation sur le Tonkin du P. Baldinotti // Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extrême- Orient. 1903. Vol. 3. P 71-78; Rhodes A. Histoire du Royaume de Tunquin. Lyon, 1651. P. 152-153.. The phenomena of solar and lunar eclipses in the mind of the Vietnamese were considered spiritual, mystical and sacred, with cults, but also instilled terror in the rulers and inhabitants of the missionary land, which gave a rare opportunity for Jesuits to show the miracle, realization and accuracy of the European astronomy, thereby attracting various classes of contemporary Vietnamese society to Christianity. In fact, through the calculation and observation enabling to predict the occurrence of such phenomena Jesuit missionaries gradually brought Western astronomical knowledge to the Vietnamese. In the Histoire du Royaume de Tunquin, the missionary Alexandre de Rhodes mentioned the occurrence of lunar eclipse in 1628 while he was in Tonkin The seventeenth and eighteen centuries were a turbulent period in the Vietnamese history. From 1627 to 1672, Trinh family in the North and Nguyen family in the South fought each other 7 times but failed to come to an end. After 46 years of constant fighting, both sides exhausted their human resources and properties, so they had to accept a truce and a long division. Gianh River, historically known as Linh Giang, became the boundary dividing Dai Viet country into two regions: from Linh Giang to the South called Dang Trong (Cochinchina) under the administration of Lord Nguyen, and from Linh Giang to the North was called Dang Ngoai (Tonkin) under the administration of King Le Lord Trinh. This situation lasted until the end of the eighteenth century when Tay Son peasant movement broke out (1771), which in turn destroyed the force of Lord Nguyen in Cochinchina (1777) and Lord Trinh in Tonkin (1786). See: Truong H. Q., Dinh X. L., Le M. H. Dai cuang Lich sü Viêt Nam toàn tap [General History of Vietnam]. Hà Nôi, 2006. P. 335-362; Le T K. Lich sü Viêt Nam tü nguon goc dê'n giüa the ki XX [Vietnam History from the origin to the middle ofthe 20^th century]. Hà Nôi, 2014. P 291-352.. Accordingly, a few days before the lunar eclipse, he calculated the start and end time of this lunar eclipse and at the same time drew its entire process on paper and tried to pass the images to Lord Trinh. He made it clear to Lord Trinh who conducted «moon rescue ritual» During the lunar eclipse or solar eclipse, Vietnamese kings often performed very solemn ceremonies. Firstly, they announced this case across the country. After that, they ordered mandarins and people to gather in the court as well as area to follow the moon and the sun, and when a lunar eclipse and solar eclipse occured, they wore mourning robes, carried on bowing and saying words of mercy to the moon or the sun being swallowed by the dragon. That is the ritual of rescue. See: Borri C. Relation de la nouvelle mission des pères de la compagnie de Jésus au royaume de la CochinChine // Bulletin des Amis du Vieux Hué. 1931. Vol. 3-4. P. 373-375; Luis G. Histoire de ce qui sest passé en Éthiopie, Malabar, Brasil, et les Indes Orientales. P. 122-127. that it was not possible to shorten the time of the lunar eclipse. This made him change his mind and not perform the rituals upon the occurrence of the lunar eclipse as before. And when this phenomenon took place exactly as predicted by Alexandre de Rhodes, Lord Trinh showed his admiration and praised him for his astronomical knowledge Rhodes A. Histoire du Royaume de Tunquin. Lyon, 1651. P. 195.. In 1629, while preaching in Nghe An province, Alexandre de Rhodes also calculated the time of the upcoming solar eclipse and drew its images on August 25, giving notice four days prior to it to the leading mandarin. Everything happened as predicted by Alexandre de Rhodes. That surprised the mandarin of Nghe An province and filled him with admiration for the accurate and authentic understanding of the secrets of the sky and the stars by Alexandre de Rhodes, which completely exceeded the cognitive ability of the Vietnamese people at the time Ibid. P. 237-238..

Meanwhile, in Cochinchina, documents of Jesuit missionaries working in this area in the early seventeenth century also recorded similar to Tonkin's cases of the process of initial receiving of Western astronomy by the king, mandarins, and intellectuals of this country through the activities of calculation, forecasts of solar and lunar eclipses carried out by the missioners. For example, Cristoforo Borri Christoforo Borri was one of the Western missionaries who helped bring Christianity to Vietnam in the first half of the seventeenth century. He was born in 1583 in Milan (Italy) and died on May 24, 1632 in

Rome. In 1601, he joined the Jesuits. In 1618, he went to Cochinchina, Vietnam to serve as a missionary until 1621. In addition to his role as a missionary, he was also a mathematician and astronomer. In the course of preaching the Gospel in Vietnam, he repeatedly used the knowledge of these fields to conquer the faith of the rulers, the intellectuals and the people of the land under the mission. See: Maybon C. B. Notice sur Cristoforo Borri et sur les editions des sa “Relation” // Bulletin des Amis du Vieux Hué. 1931. Vol. 3-4. P. 269-276; Do Q. C. Lich sü chü Quoc ngü (1620-1659) [History of the Romanized Vietnamese script (1620-1659)]. P. 34-35., a Jesuit missionary, in the report to Cochinchina referred to the occurrence of lunar eclipse on 19 December 1620. Being in Pulucambi (Binh Dinh province), he calculated the time and drew the process of this lunar eclipse before the phenomenon occurred and informed the local officials in Pulucambi. Another Jesuit missionary Francisco de Pina Francisco de Pina was one of the Jesuit missionaries who laid the foundation for the introduction and development of Christianity in Vietnam in the early seventeenth century. He was born in 1585 in Guarda, Portugal. In 1605, he joined the Jesuits. In 1617, he went to Cochinchina, Vietnam to the mission. During his time here, he made an effort to learn the local language, became the first Western missionary to use Vietnamese fluently to preach the Gospel and lay the foundation for the Latinization of Vietnamese language in the early seventeenth century. He died in 1625 in Cochinchina after a boat wreck in the offshore waters of Da Nang. See: Dror O., Taylor K. W Views of Seventeenth-century Vietnam, Christoforo Borri on Cochinchina and Samuel Baron on Tonkin. New York, 2006. P. 36; Zwartjes O. PortugeseMisionary Grammars in Asia, Africa and Brazil, 1550-1800. Amsterdam, 2011. P. 291; Jacques R. Portugese Pioneers of Vietnamese Linguistics. Bangkok, 2002. P. 27, 61-64; Do Q. C. Lich sü chü Quoc ngü (1620-1659) [History of the Romanized Vietnamese script (1620-1659)]. P 26-27; Bartoli D. Dell' historia dellaCompagnia di Giesv La Cina (Terza parte). Rome, 1663. P 834. was operating in Cacciam (Quang Nam province) - the second largest political center in contemporary Cochinchina. He also calculated the time of eclipse and informed the prince of Lord Nguyen in Cacciam. A fierce debate related to whether or not the lunar eclipse would take place as well as the specific time of this phenomenon arose between mandarins, native astronomers and these Jesuits. In particular, before the erroneous prediction by the Vietnamese astronomers about the time of the lunar eclipse, the prince of Lord Nguyen in Cacciam sent his mandarins to consult with Francisco de Pina, and then everything happened as predicted by the missionary Borri C. Relation de la nouvelle mission des pères de la compagnie de Jésus au royaume de la CochinChine // Bulletin des Amis du Vieux Hué. 1931. Vol. 3-4. P 376-379.. Another debate concerning the time of solar eclipse, which took place on 21 May 1621, and the possibility of observing it in Cochinchina involved Jesuit missioners and astronomers and mathematicians of Lord Nguyen. The missionary Cristoforo Borri informed Lord Nguyen that because of the phenomenon of parallax, the solar eclipse could not be seen this time from Cochinchina. However, as the nature of the parallax was unknown, the astronomers of Lord Nguyen affirmed that the solar eclipse would occur at the time that they had predicted and that it would be fully seen. In fact, everything happened according to Jesuit missionaries' prediction Ibid. P. 379-381.. Afterwards, as recorded by Cristoforo Borri and Gaspar Luis Gaspar Luis (unknown year of birth) was a Portuguese Jesuit missionary who arrived in Cochinchina in 1625 and remained there for 15 years before leaving this missionary land in 1639. He is also considered one of the founders of the birth of Vietnamese script in Vietnam in the first half of the seventeenth century, when in the reports of the missionary situation in Cochinchina, Vietnam were written in 1621 and 1626, quite a lot of vestiges about the Latinization process of Vietnamese could be found. See: Montézon F., Estève E., Rhodes A., Tissanier J., Saccano M. Mission de la Cochinchine et du Tonkin avec gravure et carte géographique. Paris, 1858. P 387; Do Q. C. Lich sü chü Quoc ngü (1620-1659) [History of the Romanized Vietnamese script (1620-1659)]. P 33, 41-44., many astronomers and mathematicians of Lord Nguyen in Hue and of the prince in Cacciam (Quang Nam province) learnt how to calculate and observe the solar and lunar eclipses Borri C. Relation de la nouvelle mission des pères de la compagnie de Jésus au royaume de la CochinChine. P. 381; Luis G. Histoire de ce qui sest passé en Éthiopie, Malabar, Brasil, et les Indes Orientales. P. 122-123., which was the best opportunity for Western astronomy to enter Vietnam and be accepted positively by the Vietnamese intellectuals in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Although the aforementioned evidence is not sufficient to reconstruct a comprehensive picture with the concrete results achieved during the process of adoption of the Western astronomy in Vietnam in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it is possible to confirm that the Vietnamese rulers and intellectuals had access to the knowledge of Western astronomy and acquired it to a certain extent thanks to Jesuit missionaries, who explicitly interpreted it and calculated and predicted solar and lunar eclipses. At least, they recognized its superiority over the traditional astronomical knowledge inherited from China and deeply influenced by it. Thus, the Vietnamese kings realized the need of resorting to the Western missionaries in the fields of science and technology in general, and in astronomy in particular, in the eighteenth century, and Lord Nguyen in Cochinchina was one of the typical examples of this tendency In the eighteenth century, Lord Nguyen Cochinchina used Jesuit missionaries named Antoine Arnedo, Jean Baptisle Sanna, Sebatien Pices, Francisco de Lima, Joseph Neugebeaur, Jean Siebert, Grueber, Charles Slamenski and Jean Koffler to act as roles of astronomer, mathematician and physician working in Lord Nguyen's palace. See: Saraiva L. Europe and China: Science and Arts in the 17^th and 18^th Centuries. Singapore, 2013. P 32-33; Dehergne J. Répertoire des jésuites de Chine de 1552 à 1800. Roma, 1973. P. 16, 137-138, 152, 184, 239-240, 254-255; Montézon F., Estève E., Rhodes A., Tissanier J., Saccano M. Mission de la Cochinchine et du Tonkin avec gravure et carte géographique. P 259, 267, 387-389; Maybon C. B. Histoire moderne du pays d'Annam (1592-1820). P. 141; Li T. N. Nguyen Cochichina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. New York, 1998. P 72-73..

Conclusion

To sum up, from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the process of East-West cultural exchange in China and Vietnam generally produced positive results with the introduction of a series of Western scientific and technological achievements, in which astronomy was one of the most prominent fields. It is of importance that this process in both countries was associated with the names, roles and merits of the Jesuit missionaries as well as the «missionary academic» policy which they pursued in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In fact, in order to realize the purpose of attracting the classes of Chinese and Vietnamese society, especially kings, mandarins and intellectuals to Christianity, Jesuit missionaries, through many other approaches, introduced to the aforementioned social groups a wide range of achievements as well as knowledge of Western science and technology, including astronomy. Therefore, along with fulfilling the missionary purpose, they also simultaneously obtained indispensable results in terms of cultural exchange as Western astronomical achievements were gradually introduced and accepted by the Chinese and Vietnamese. However, the difference in historical and political contexts, especially in the attitude of the ruling forces of two countries towards Christianity and Western missionaries at certain stages, engendered specific characteristics of the processes of receiving Western astronomy in China and Vietnam. From a comparative perspective, the process of adopting Western astronomy in China in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was intense, direct and continuous, with Jesuit missionaries playing the leading role in the courts of the Ming and Qing feudal dynasties. Therefore, the achieved results were relatively impressive. By contrast, the constant changes in the attitude of Vietnamese kings towards Christianity and Western missionaries interrupted the process and affected the results of receiving Western astronomy in Vietnam, which were less profound and diverse than in China.

Despite such differences, the processes of adopting Western astronomy in China and Vietnam in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries still had similarities. It should be noted that both countries had a long history of formation and development of astronomy, and although Western astronomy could show its superiority in terms of science and accuracy, it still couldn't completely replace traditional astronomical foundation which had been in use for a long time. In fact, Chinese and Vietnamese kings, mandarins, and intellectuals, despite showing their openness and thirst for knowledge in acquiring Western astronomy achievements, didn't completely abandon traditional astronomical knowledge and still continued to preserve and maintain it. In the process of coexistence and simultaneous use, Western astronomy and traditional astronomy could not avoid collisions, which had a certain impact on the process of adopting Western astronomy in China and Vietnam from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries.

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