Stephano Torelli’s "Coronation portrait of Catherine II": crowns as a visual formula of the lands of the Russian empire

Catherine II was, of course, never crowned as “tsaritsa Kazanskaia”, or “tsaritsa Astrakhanskaia”, or “tsaritsa Sibirskaia”, though such titles were included in her full title, contrary to Maria Theresia who was in fact crowned as a “king” of Hungary and “king” of Bohemia. Unlike in portraits of Maria Theresia, the crowns in the portrait of Catherine II are not signs of actual sovereignty of the lands but rather only their former high rank, thus they are functioning only as signifiers of extraordinary might of The Russian Empress.

The number and position of crowns raises questions. In “Castrum Doloris” of Peter I there were four crowns -- those of Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberia and the Russian Empire. The latter was distinguished from the rest by its position in a row by the head of the Emperor.

However, the crown of the Moscow tsarstvo is not present The crown of Monomakhus was never used in Emperor's funerals, though since coronation of Ivan Groznyi in 1547 who was the first Russian ruler to be crowned as a tsar all Russian tsars up to of Ivan Alekseevich in 1682 were crowned with it. Presumably presented to Ivan Kalita by the khan of Golden Horde, in the 15^th century it started to be associated with a gift of Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Monomachus which he, according to the legend, gave to his relative Kievan kniaz Vladimir Monomakhus [45, p. 58; XXXVI]. For Peter I who was crowned together with his brother Ivan a special Shapka Monomakha vtorogo nariada was made [XXXVII]. According to Erin McBurney shapka of Monomakhus appears later in Iogann Baptist Lampi's sketch of a portrait of Catherine II with Saturn and Clio (no later than 1793, State Russian museum, Saint-Petersburg [5, no. 227, repr.; 12, p. 378]). However, an object which is taken by Erin McBurney for shapka of Monomakhus is extremely loosely painted and it is difficult to deduce whether it is a crown, or an orb or something else.. Still, its very absence makes us think that it is the crown of Moscow tsarstvo which is substituted by the Imperial crown, thus visualizing Russia's special place as an initial land of the Russian Empire to which the rest, conquered ones, were later added. Such a sort of paralipsis is made even more eloquent by fact that the only coronation (Imperial) actually took place in Moscow unlike in case of the Habsburgs who had separate coronations. Since the death of Peter I such a group of crowns was established as a symbolic formula for the Emperor's titles and Empire at funerals.

The same distinction of Moscow is obvious in the composition of coats-of-arms on the canopy over the throne in Uspenskii cathedral during coronation when the coat-of-arms of Moscow was marked by its central position, while native Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, and conquered Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberia were placed around it thus being equalized as “subject lands”. The allegorical representations of the lands of the Russian Empire on triumphal arches featured alongside Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia, a figure embodying the Moscow tsarstvo. As there are no depictions of them at our disposal, it is impossible to say whether it was somehow distinguished from the rest or not.

Thus, there are three combinations of symbolic representations which visualize Russian Empire and each was expressed in a certain media:

1) the one, including Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberia and the Moscow tsarstvo, which seems to equalize native Moscow and conquered lands (allegorical figures in painting and sculpture);

2) the one, distinguishing Moscow and equalizing native Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod and conquered Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberia (heraldry);

3) the one, consisting of Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberia and the Russian Empire, which still seems to differentiate the Moscow tsarstvo by its very absence signifying implicitly its role as a native land and a predecessor of the Russian Empire (crowns as relics in funerals). Coexistence of three variations evinces that differences in visual description were rather accents than fatal contradictions. Torelli adopted for his portrait the third type, evidently because it was the one involving crowns.

The Oxford English dictionary defines “Empire” as “an expanse territory (unity of several independent states in particular) under rule of Emperor or supreme sovereign; unity of subject territories ruled by the state sovereign”. Seimur Becker clarifying this definition stresses that the Empire “can constitute from either 1) subject territories under the auspices of a particular ruler and none of the territories has control over the rest, or 2) state-metropolis with territories subject to it. He maintains that the Romanov's Empire as well as the Habsburg Empire belonged to the first type” [46, p. 69, 71]. He continues that in both cases a ruler belonged to the dynasty rooted in one of the territories under his scepter, but insists that such a situation had nothing in common with the rule of the state over subject territories. Such a formulation is indisputable in relation to Habsburg Empire. In the case with the Russian Empire such a definition, certainly better founded than the second one, however, requires additional commentary. These nuances are evident in a visual discourse and in Torelli's “Coronation portrait of Catherine II” in particular.

Especially revealing are Russian copies of the portrait transforming the motive of the crowns Irina Sakharova compares Torelli's original and Antropov's copy only in the terms of stylistics, but without any attempts to interpret their meaning [47, p. 124-5].. In the original by Torelli, a European-minded artist, the Empress stands in front of the table, her hand with a scepter is tranquilly resting downward. Crowns are one of the details (though significant) in the profusion of a baroque interior. Only a small part of the crown of Kazan is shown, the rest is hidden by the edge of the canvas. As Erin McBurney pointed out, the exceeding luxury of accessories and the very mass of Empress's skirt with heavy folds epitomize the vast expanse and abundance of the Empire. The crowns function as signifies which meaning can be deciphered not only on a textual level (the symbol is the very object depicted and its meaning is decoded in its name, i. e. “crown of Kazan”, “crown of Astrakhan”, “crown of Siberia”), but also on a purely artistic level. Rich and vibrant golden color of the old crowns is associated with the old tradition of power into which Catherine wanted to insert herself. The noble and restrained silverish tints of the Empress's European gown, as well as a different European form of the Imperial crown on her head, make her stand out, while golden flashes of double-headed eagles emblazoned on her dress and red ruby of her crown restore her link with the surroundings on an artistic level. Red ruby of the new Imperial crown corresponds to red stones of the old crowns and is echoed in draperies, cushion and pilasters. Catherine appears as a European sovereign perfectly fitted into the historical Russian succession.

In Aleksei Antropov's copies there does not appear to be a trace left of the masterfully structured composition, in which the disposition of objects, rhythmic pattern and color-scheme transmit the idea of unity. The skirt of the Empress's dress is not filling the foreground anymore, but is rigidly outlined. Sharp colors do not create a carefully elaborated and meaningful palette. The prominence is given to the motif of crowns. The table with them is moved towards the front edge of the canvas, much more visible and, therefore, accentuated. The excessive attention to the important details is a specific feature of many works of 18^th-century Russian art with its uneven development and archaisms rooted in “parsuna” traditions of representation. Unlike in Torelli's original, the Empress holds a scepter in a powerful and protective gesture, so that it forms a sharp diagonal over crowns, visualizing the metaphor “under scepter” and in combination with Imperial crown on her head marking the subject position of the conquered lands presented, their high status (as they are presented by crowns), special position of Russia as a native land (by the very absence of the crown of Moscovia) and exceedingly high status of both Catherine as a bearer of multiple crowns and the Russian Empire.

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